Aerospace Operations in Urban Environments

The recent spate of urban operations in Panama, Somalia, Haiti, and Bosnia has motivated the Department of Defense to put considerable effort into identifying and correcting shortcomings in the United States' ability to successfully conduct urban military operations. Project AIR FORCE undertook a year-long investigation of the role that aerospace forces can play in joint urban military operations. This study sought to help the USAF better understand how the urban physical, social, and political environment constrains aerospace operations, to identify key operational tasks that aerospace forces can help accomplish, and to develop new concepts of operation, including enabling technologies, to enhance the contribution that aerospace forces make to joint urban operations.

Preface

iii

Figures

ix

Tables

xi

Summary

xiii

Acknowledgments

xxi

Abbreviations and Acronyms

xxv

Introduction

1

(12)

Background

1

(2)

How Likely Are Urban Operations?

3

(3)

The Nature of Urban Military Operations

6

(4)

From Rubble to Routine

7

(1)

Redefining Warfare, Not Service Roles

8

(2)

Purpose

10

(1)

Organization

11

(2)

Using Aerospace Power to Prevent the Urban Fight

13

(26)

Introduction

13

(4)

How Aerospace Power Can Forestall Urban Operations

17

(8)

Anatomy of an Urban Military Operation

18

(1)

Comparative Advantages of Aerospace Power

19

(2)

Preclusion Strategies

21

(4)

Where Preclusionary Strategies May Have Worked

25

(4)

Al Khafji

25

(3)

Kuwait City

28

(1)

Southern Lebanon

28

(1)

Where Aerospace Power Failed to Prevent Urban Combat

29

(5)

Lessons Learned

32

(1)

The Second Chechen Battle

33

(1)

When Circumstances Leave No Choice

34

(3)

As a Tool for Joint Force Commanders

36

(1)

The Limits of Aerospace Power in Urban Operations

37

(1)

Summary

37

(2)

Legal and Political Constraints on Urban Aerospace Operations

39

(32)

Introduction

39

(1)

Legal Constraints on Urban Aerospace Operations

40

(12)

Reciprocal Legal Duties and the Defender's Obligations

46

(1)

The International Legal Challenges of Urban Environments

47

(5)

Political Constraints on Urban Operations

52

(5)

Sensitivity to American Casualties

53

(2)

Sensitivity to Collateral Damage and Civilian Suffering

55

(2)

Restrictive Rules of Engagement and Targeting

57

(5)

The Asymmetry of Constraints

62

(6)

Conclusion

68

(3)

Aerospace Operations and the Urban Physical Environment

71

(48)

Introduction

71

(1)

The Nature of Urban Terrain

72

(11)

Urban Terrain Zones and Their Characteristics

74

(6)

Air Defenses on Urban Terrain

80

(3)

Surveillance and Reconnaissance in the Urban Environment

83

(24)

Sensor Cueing in the Urban Environment and a New Cueing Concept

84

(5)

Target Identification/Tracking in the Urban Environment

89

(4)

EO Sensors Versus Targets on Rooftops and in Streets

93

(5)

EO Sensors Versus Targets Inside Buildings

98

(9)

Aerial Weapon Delivery in the Urban Environment

107

(7)

Aerial Weapon Trajectories and the Geometry of the Urban Terrain

107

(4)

Weapon Effects and Urban Terrain

111

(3)

Airlift in Urban Environments

114

(1)

Conclusions

115

(4)

New Concepts for Accomplishing Key Tasks in Urban Operations

119

(30)

Introduction

119

(1)

Stop Movement of Combatants, Vehicles, and Equipment

120

(3)

Provide Rapid, High-Resolution Imagery for Target ID

123

(4)

Detect and Neutralize Adversary Ambus Positions

127

(4)

Detect and Neutralize Snipers

131

(7)

Monitor High-Priority Targets

138

(5)

Resupply Isolated Friendly Ground Forces

143

(2)

Provide Close Support for Ground Forces

145

(1)

The Role of the Joint Control Center

146

(3)

Enabling Technologies for Urban Aerospace Operations

149

(50)

Introduction

149

(1)

Three-Dimensional Modeling of the Urban Environment

150

(15)

Key Functions and the Scope of Air Force Involvement

150

(2)

Laser Radar Mapping

152

(3)

Stereoscopic Electro-Optical Imaging

155

(1)

Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar

156

(5)

Comparison of 3-D Imaging Technology

161

(1)

Platform Trade-Offs

162

(1)

Software Exploitation of 3-D Urban Maps

163

(2)

Communications and Navigation Technology for the Urban Environment

165

(5)

UAV Relays

165

(1)

Through-the-Wall Communications

166

(3)

Pseudolites

169

(1)

Imaging Sensor Technology for Urban Operations

170

(4)

Non-Imaging Sensor Technology for Urban Operations

174

(8)

Seismic and Acoustic Sensors

174

(1)

Through-the-Wall Radar

175

(4)

Remote Listening

179

(1)

Chemical Sniffing

180

(2)

Sensor Fusion in Support of Urban Operations

182

(2)

Air-Launched Sensor Platforms

184

(3)

Limited-Effects Munitions

187

(10)

Kinetic-Energy Weapons

187

(1)

``Laser-Guided Hand Grenades''

188

(1)

Miniature Glide Bombs, Cruise Missiles, and Killer UAVs

188

(1)

Nonlethal Weapons

189

(8)

Conclusion

197

(2)

Conclusions

199

(68)

Introduction

199

(1)

Key Findings

199

(2)

The Need for Improved Urban Operational Capabilities

201

(1)

Technological Promises and the Reality of War

202

(2)

Next Steps

204

(3)

Appendix

A. Trigonometric Calculations

207

(2)

B. Microwave Recharging of Mini-UAVs and Micro-UAVs

209

(4)

C. Detecting Snipers

213

(4)

D. Lessons Learned From Past Urban Air Operations

217

(50)

Bibliography

267

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Aerospace Operations in Urban Environments Exploring New Concepts

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials