Basic Concepts of Environmental Chemistry, Second Edition

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ISBN: 9781566706766 | 1566706769
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 7/14/2005

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Incorporating advances made since the 1997 publication of the first edition, this book includes material on toxic metals, atmospheric pollution, radionuclides, acid drainage water, and risk assessment. It addresses topics such as polarity, partition behavior, fugacity, and solubility as well as the basic chemistry of compounds and processes in the environment. The author begins with coverage of the basic properties of chemicals in terms of polarity, water solubility, and vapor pressure, followed by chapters on environmental transformations and toxicity. Expanding on these fundamentals, he describes contaminants in the environment and pollution processes in the air, water and soil environments.

PART I Principles of Environmental Chemistry

Chapter 1 The Role and Importance of Environmental Chemistry

(14)

1.1 Alchemy

(1)

1.2 The Chemical Age

(1)

1.3 Environmental Chemistry

(2)

1.4 The Scope of Environmental Chemistry

(2)

1.5 Chemistry in Environmental Management

(1)

1.6 Basic Concept of This Book

(2)

1.7 Key Points

(1)

References

(1)

Questions

(1)

Answers

(3)

PART II Basic Properties of Chemicals in the Environment

Chapter 2 Bonds and Molecules: Their Influence on Physical-Chemical Properties in the Environment

(32)

2.1 Introduction

(1)

2.2 States of Matter in the Environment

(2)

2.3 Nature of Bonds

(4)

2.4 Polarity of Molecules

(1)

2.5 Ionic Compounds

(4)

2.6 Intermolecular Forces

(2)

2.7 Physical-Chemical Properties of Compounds

(6)

2.7.1 Melting Point (MP)

(1)

2.7.2 Boiling Point (BP)

(2)

2.7.3 Solubility

(3)

2.8 Partition Behavior

(7)

2.9 Key Points

(1)

References

(1)

Questions

(3)

Answers

(2)

Chapter 3 Environmental Transformation and Degradation Processes

(30)

3.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2 Abiotic Transformation and Degradation

(10)

3.2.1 Oxidation through Combustion

(5)

3.2.2 Phototransformation

(4)

3.2.3 Hydrolysis

(1)

3.3 Biotransformation and Biodegradation

(7)

3.3.1 Microbial Transformation

(2)

3.3.2 Types of Microbial Degradation

(1)

3.3.3 Patterns of Growth

(1)

3.3.4 Co-metabolism

(1)

3.3.5 Reduction-Oxidation (Redox) Processes in Natural Waters

(2)

3.3.6 Terrestrial Systems

(1)

3.3.7 Degradation by Higher Organisms

(1)

3.4 Kinetics of Transformation and Degradation

(5)

3.4.1 Kinetic Expressions

(3)

3.4.2 Volatilization

(2)

3.5 Key Points

(2)

References

(1)

Questions

(2)

Answers

(3)

Chapter 4 Environmental Toxicology

(26)

4.1 Introduction

(1)

4.2 Routes and Mechanisms of Toxicant Entry to Organisms

(4)

4.2.1 Mechanisms of Entry to Organisms

(2)

4.2.2 Chemical Properties of Compounds That Cross Cell Membranes

(1)

4.2.3 Routes of Entry to Organisms

(1)

4.3 Distribution of Toxicants within the Organism

(2)

4.4 Biotransformation of Toxicants

(1)

4.4.1 Principles of Biotransformation

(1)

4.4.2 Phase I Transformations

(1)

4.4.3 Phase II Transformations

(1)

4.4.4 Sites of Biotransformation

(1)

4.5 Excretion of Toxicants

(1)

4.6 Classes of Poisons Based on Effect

(1)

4.7 Quantitative Principles of Toxicology

(6)

4.7.1 Background

(1)

4.7.2 Measures of Toxicity

(4)

4.7.3 Factors Influencing Toxicity

(1)

4.8 Experimental Testing for Toxicity: Bioassays

(3)

4.8.1 Types of Bioassays

(1)

4.8.2 Calculating Toxicological Data

(2)

4.9 Alternative, More Humane Methods for Toxicity Assessment

(1)

4.10 Key Points

(1)

References

100

(1)

Questions

100

(1)

Answers

101

(4)

PART III Contaminants in the Environment

Chapter 5 Petroleum Hydrocarbons

105

(16)

5.1 Introduction

105

(1)

5.2 Chemical Nature of Petroleum

106

(4)

5.2.1 Hydrocarbons

106

(2)

5.2.2 Nonhydrocarbons

108

(2)

5.3 Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Environment

110

(7)

5.3.1 Dispersion

110

(1)

5.3.2 Evaporation

110

(1)

5.3.3 Dissolution

111

(2)

5.3.4 Emulsion Formation

113

(1)

5.3.5 Photooxidation

113

(1)

5.3.6 Microbial Transformation

114

(3)

5.4 Petroleum and Aquatic Organisms

117

(1)

5.5 Key Points

118

(1)

References

119

(1)

Questions

119

(1)

Answers

120

(1)

Chapter 6 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBS) and Dioxins

121

(26)

6.1 Introduction

121

(1)

6.2 The Naming System for PCBs and PCDDs: Nomenclature

122

(3)

6.3 Sources of Environmental Contamination

125

(4)

6.3.1 PCBs

125

(1)

6.3.2 Dioxins

126

(3)

6.4 Physical-Chemical Properties of PCBs and Dioxins

129

(2)

6.5 Environmental Distribution and Behavior

131

(5)

6.6 Toxicity

136

(6)

6.6.1 PCBs

136

(2)

6.6.2 Dioxins

138

(4)

6.7 Key Points

142

(1)

References

143

(1)

Questions

143

(2)

Answers

145

(2)

Chapter 7 Synthetic Polymers: Plastics, Elastomers, and Synthetic Fibers

147

(20)

7.1 Introduction

147

(1)

7.2 The Nature of Synthetic Polymers

148

(1)

7.3 Classification and Definitions

149

(2)

7.4 Synthesis of Synthetic Polymers

151

(4)

7.4.1 Polymerization Processes

151

(3)

7.4.2 Cross-Linking

154

(1)

7.5 Environmental Characteristics

155

(7)

7.5.1 Combustion

155

(1)

7.5.2 Biodegradation

156

(3)

7.5.3 Photodegradation

159

(2)

7.5.4 Recycling

161

(1)

7.6 Key Points

162

(2)

References

164

(1)

Questions

164

(2)

Answers

166

(1)

Chapter 8 Pesticides

167

(24)

8.1 Introduction

167

(1)

8.2 The Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides

168

(8)

8.2.1 Chemical Structure and Synthesis

169

(1)

8.2.2 Physical-Chemical Properties

170

(1)

8.2.3 Environmental Properties

171

(2)

8.2.4 Bioconcentration Properties

173

(1)

8.2.5 Toxicity

174

(1)

8.2.6 Ecological Effects

175

(1)

8.2.7 Long-Range Transport: The Persistent Organic Pollutants

175

(1)

8.3 The Organophosphate Insecticides

176

(3)

8.3.1 Chemical Form and Synthesis

176

(1)

8.3.2 Physical-Chemical Properties

176

(2)

8.3.3 Environmental Properties

178

(1)

8.3.4 Toxic Activity

178

(1)

8.4 The Carbamates

179

(1)

8.4.1 Environmental Properties

179

(1)

8.4.2 Mechanism of Toxic Action

180

(1)

8.5 Pyrethrins and Pyrethroids

180

(3)

8.5.1 Physical Properties

180

(1)

8.5.2 Mechanism of Action and Toxicology

181

(1)

8.5.3 Synthetic Pyrethroids

182

(1)

8.6 Phenoxyacetic Acid Herbicides

183

(1)

8.7 Key Points

184

(3)

References

187

(1)

Questions

187

(1)

Answers

188

(3)

Chapter 9 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

191

(18)

9.1 Introduction

191

(1)

9.2 Chemical Nature of PAHs

191

(1)

9.3 Environmental Properties

192

(2)

9.4 Formation of PAHs

194

(1)

9.5 Sources of the PAHs

195

(2)

9.6 Occurrence and Behavior of PAHs in the Environment

197

(2)

9.7 Carcinogenicity and Toxicity of the PAHs

199

(1)

9.8 Effects on Human Health and the Natural Environment

200

(2)

9.9 Key Points

202

(1)

References

202

(1)

Questions

203

(1)

Answers

204

(5)

Chapter 10 Soaps and Detergents

209

(18)

10.1 Introduction

209

(1)

10.2 Surfactants: The Active Cleaning Agents

210

(2)

10.3 Synthesis

212

(3)

10.3.1 Soaps

212

(2)

10.3.2 Alkylbenzene Sulfonates and Alkyl Sulfates

214

(1)

10.3.3 Alkyl Ethoxylates

215

(1)

10.4 Detergents

215

(4)

10.4.1 Surfactant Components

215

(2)

10.4.2 Builders

217

(1)

10.4.3 Enzymes and Bleaches

218

(1)

10.5 Cationic Surfactants

219

(1)

10.6 Toxicity

219

(1)

10.7 Biodegradation

220

(2)

10.8 Sorption and Bioaccumulation

222

(1)

10.9 Natural Surfactants

222

(1)

10.10 Key Points

222

(3)

References

225

(1)

Questions

225

(1)

Answers

226

(1)

Chapter 11 Metals in the Environment

227

(26)

11.1 Introduction

227

(2)

11.2 Sources of Metals in the Environment

229

(2)

11.2.1 Natural Sources

229

(1)

11.2.2 Pollution Sources

229

(2)

11.3 Behavior and Fate in Abiotic Environments

231

(4)

11.3.1 Metals in Aquatic Systems

231

(2)

11.3.2 Metal Speciation in Freshwater and Seawater

233

(1)

11.3.3 Bioavailability of Metals

233

(1)

11.3.4 Interactions between Aqueous and Solid Phases

234

(1)

11.4 Transport and Transformations in Biota

235

(1)

11.4.1 Microbial-Metal Interactions

235

(1)

11.4.2 Uptake, Excretion, and Regulation Processes

236

(1)

11.5 Biological Effects of Metals

236

(1)

11.5.1 Essential and Nonessential Trace Metals

236

(1)

11.5.2 Metal Tolerance and Biotransformation

236

(1)

11.5.3 Bioaccumulation

236

(1)

11.6 Toxic Effects

237

(1)

11.6.1 Effects on Human Health

238

(1)

11.7 Organometallic Compounds

238

(4)

11.7.1 Background

238

(2)

11.7.2 Sources

240

(1)

11.7.2.1 Formation in the Environment

240

(1)

11.7.2.2 Environmental Occurrence

240

(1)

11.7.3 Behavior

241

(1)

11.8 Radionuclides

242

(3)

11.8.1 Background

242

(1)

11.8.2 Nuclear Energy Usage

243

(2)

11.8.3 Radioactive Inputs into the Environment

245

(1)

11.8.4 Biological Effects of Radiation

245

(1)

11.9 Key Points

245

(3)

References

248

(1)

Questions

248

(1)

Answers

249

(4)

PART IV Processes in the Natural Environment

Chapter 12 Atmospheric Chemistry and Pollution

253

(28)

12.1 Introduction

253

(1)

12.2 Overview of Photosynthesis and Respiration

254

(2)

12.3 The Environmental Significance of Photosynthesis and Respiration

256

(6)

12.3.1 Photosynthesis, Respiration, and the Atmosphere over Geological Time

256

(2)

12.3.2 The Greenhouse Effects

258

(4)

12.4 Reactive Intermediates in the Atmosphere

262

(3)

12.4.1 Hydroxyl Radical

262

(1)

12.4.2 Ozone

263

(1)

12.4.3 Nitrate Radical

264

(1)

12.5 Formation of Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN) and Related Compounds

265

(3)

12.6 Halogenated Hydrocarbons, Chlorofluorocarbons, and the Ozone Layer

268

(4)

12.7 Formation of Oxides of Sulfur and Nitrogen and Acid Rain

272

(1)

12.8 Key Points

273

(3)

References

276

(1)

Questions

276

(1)

Answers

277

(4)

Chapter 13 Chemistry of Natural Waters and Water Pollution

281

(42)

13.1 Introduction

281

(1)

13.2 Physicochemical Properties of Water

282

(4)

13.3 Organic Components in Natural Waters

286

(2)

13.4 Carbon and Nitrogen Transformations in Natural Water Bodies

288

(4)

13.4.1 The Carbon Cycle

288

(1)

13.4.2 The Nitrogen Cycle

289

(3)

13.5 Estuarine Systems

292

(2)

13.5.1 Physical Interaction of Fresh- and Seawater in Estuaries

292

(2)

13.6 Oceanic Systems

294

(3)

13.6.1 Salinity of Seawater

294

(1)

13.6.2 Vertical Depth Profiles of Seawater Composition

294

(3)

13.7 Deoxygenating Substances in Water Bodies

297

(9)

13.7.1 Background

297

(1)

13.7.2 Influence of Chemical Processes on Dissolved Oxygen

298

(2)

13.7.3 Measurement of the Oxygen-Reducing Capacity of a Wastewater: The BOD Test

300

(1)

13.7.4 Kinetics of BOD Reduction

300

(1)

13.7.5 The Dissolved Oxygen Sag

301

(3)

13.7.6 Seasonal Variations and Vertical Profiles of Dissolved Oxygen

304

(1)

13.7.7 Anaerobic Processes: Production of Poisonous Gases from Animal and Vegetable Wastes

305

(1)

13.7.8 The Effects of Organic Wastes

305

(1)

13.8 Nutrient Enrichment and Eutrophication

306

(8)

13.8.1 Background

306

(1)

13.8.2 Nutrients and Plant Growth

307

(2)

13.8.3 Sources and Losses of Nutrients

309

(1)

13.8.4 Nutrient Transformations in a Water Body

310

(1)

13.8.5 Photosynthesis and Diurnal Variations in Dissolved Oxygen

310

(2)

13.8.6 Characteristics of Nutrient Enrichment and Trophic Status

312

(1)

13.8.7 The Blue-Green Algae (Cyanobacteria)

313

(1)

13.8.8 The Future

314

(1)

13.9 Key Points

314

(3)

References

317

(1)

Questions

317

(1)

Answers

318

(5)

Chapter 14 Soil Contamination

323

(22)

14.1 Introduction

323

(1)

14.2 Sources of Soil Contamination

323

(2)

14.3 Chemical Nature of Soil Contaminants

325

(1)

14.4 Important Environmental Properties of Soils

326

(4)

14.5 Important Environmental Properties of Soil Contaminants

330

(3)

14.6 Distribution of Soil Contaminants

333

(6)

14.6.1 The Soil-Water Partition Process

333

(3)

14.6.2 The Soil-Organism Process

336

(3)

14.7 Ecological and Health Effects of Soil Contamination

339

(1)

14.8 Key Points

340

(2)

References

342

(1)

Questions

342

(1)

Answers

343

(2)

Chapter 15 Distribution of Chemicals in the Environment

345

(20)

15.1 Introduction

345

(1)

15.2 Two-Phase Partition Processes in the Environment

345

(6)

15.3 The Fugacity Concept

351

(2)

15.4 Fugacity and Chemical Distribution

353

(2)

15.5 The Fugacity Capacity Factors (Z Values)

355

(2)

15.6 Chemical Distribution in a Model Environment

357

(3)

15.7 Key Points

360

(2)

References

362

(1)

Questions

362

(1)

Answers

363

(2)

Chapter 16 Genotoxicity: The Action of Environmental Chemicals on Genetic Material

365

(24)

16.1 Introduction

365

(1)

16.2 The Genetic Code

366

(5)

16.3 Teratogens and Teratogenesis

371

(3)

16.3.1 Mechanisms of Action

371

(2)

16.3.2 Examples of Teratogens

373

(1)

16.3.2.1 Alcohol (Ethanol)

373

(1)

16.3.2.2 Methyl Mercury

373

(1)

16.3.2.3 Rubella (German Measles)

374

(1)

16.3.2.4 Thalidomide

374

(1)

16.4 Mutagens and Mutagenesis

374

(4)

16.4.1 Types of Mutations

374

(2)

16.4.1.1 Point Mutations

375

(1)

16.4.1.2 Mutations

375

(1)

16.4.2 Expression of Mutations and DNA Repair

376

(2)

16.5 Carcinogens and Carcinogenesis

378

(6)

16.5.1 Types of Carcinogens

378

(3)

16.5.1.1 Genotoxic Carcinogens

378

(1)

16.5.1.2 Epigenetic Carcinogens

379

(2)

16.5.2 Tumors

381

(1)

16.5.3 Development of Cancer

382

(1)

16.5.4 Problems with Genotoxicity Tests

383

(1)

16.6 Key Points

384

(1)

References

385

(1)

Questions

385

(1)

Answers

386

(3)

PART V Management of Hazardous Chemicals

Chapter 17 Monitoring of Chemicals in the Environment

389

(24)

17.1 Introduction

389

(1)

17.2 Monitoring and Sampling the Environment

390

(4)

17.3 Techniques for Chemical Analysis

394

(5)

17.4 Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC)

399

(2)

17.4.1 Background

399

(1)

17.4.2 QA/QC Procedures

400

(1)

17.5 Reporting of Results

401

(1)

17.6 Key Points

402

(2)

References

404

(1)

Questions

404

(2)

Answers

406

(7)

Chapter 18 Human Health and Ecological Risk Assessment Due to Exposure to Chemicals

413

(28)

18.1 Introduction

413

(1)

18.2 The Risk Assessment: Process and Principles

414

(2)

18.3 Human Health Risk Assessment

416

(9)

18.3.1 Background

416

(1)

18.3.2 Exposure Assessment

417

(3)

18.3.3 Dose-Response Relationships

420

(4)

18.3.3.1 Data Available on Dose-Response Relationships

420

(3)

18.3.3.2 Safety Factors

423

(1)

18.3.4 Acceptable or Tolerable Daily Intake (or Reference Dose) for Human Populations

424

(1)

18.3.5 Risk Characterization

425

(1)

18.4 Ecological Risk Assessment and Ecotoxicology

425

(10)

18.4.1 Background

425

(1)

18.4.2 The Ecotoxicology Concept

425

(1)

18.4.3 Types of Toxicant Discharged to the Environment

426

(1)

18.4.4 Laboratory Testing for Environmental Effects

427

(2)

18.4.5 Effects on Ecosystems

429

(1)

18.4.6 The Ecological Risk Assessment Process

430

(5)

18.5 Key Points

435

(2)

References

437

(1)

Questions

437

(1)

Answers

438

(3)

Index

441

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Basic Concepts of Environmental Chemistry, Second Edition

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials