| Introduction |
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vii | |
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Francis Power Cobbe `Darwinism in Morals' (1872) |
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35 | |
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J. G. C. `Darwinism' (1873) |
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25 | (74) |
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John Tyndall Address delivered before the British Association assembled at Belfast (1874) |
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99 | |
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J. L. Porter Science and Revelation -- Their Distinctive Provinces (1874) |
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38 | |
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Jeremiah Murphy `Darwinism' (1884) |
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11 | (22) |
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Robert Watts `Atomism -- An Examination of Professor Tyndall's Opening Address before the British Association, 1874' (1888) |
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33 | |
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James Houghton Kennedy `Design and Natural Selection' (1891) |
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32 | |
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George Sigerson `Genesis and Evolution' (1894) |
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18 | |
| Introductory Chapter |
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Scope of the Work explained |
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Geology looked on with Suspicion by Christians |
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Hailed with Triumph by Unbelievers |
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No Contradiction possible between the Works of Nature and the Word of God |
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Author not jealous of Progress in Geological Discoveries |
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Points of Contact between Geology and Revelation |
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1 | (6) |
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PART I. GEOLOGICAL THEORY AND THE EVIDENCE BY WHICH IT IS SUPPORTED |
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7 | (22) |
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Recent Progress of Geology |
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Aqueous Rocks; of Mechanical Origin |
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Igneous Rocks, Plutonic and Volcanic |
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Summary of the Rocks that compose the Crust of the Earth |
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Relative Order of Position |
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Internal Condition of the Globe |
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Movements of the Earth's Crust |
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Subterranean Disturbing Force |
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Uplifting and Bending of Strata |
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Denudation and its Causes |
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their Value in Geological Theory |
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Theory of Denudation Illustrated by Facts |
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29 | (25) |
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Principle of Reasoning common to all the Physical Sciences |
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This Principle applicable to Geology |
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Carbonic Acid an Agent of Denudation |
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Vast Quantity of Lime dissolved by the Waters of the Rhine and borne away to the German Ocean |
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Disintegration of Rocks by Frost |
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Professor Tyndall on the Matterhorn |
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An active and unceasing Agent of Denudation |
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Mineral Sediment carried out to Sea by the Ganges and other great Rivers |
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Solid Rocks undermined and worn away |
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Falls of the Clyde at Lanark |
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The River Simeto in Sicily |
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Transporting Power of running Water |
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Inundation in the Valley of Bagnes in Switzerland |
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Theory of Denudation---Further Illustrations |
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54 | (15) |
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The Breakers of the Ocean |
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Caverns and Fairy Bridges of Kilkee |
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East and South Coast of Britain |
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Tracts of Land swallowed up by the Sea |
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Inroads of the Sea on the Coast of Holland |
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Formation of the Zuyder Zee |
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Recent Explorations of Dr. Carpenter |
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Examples of its Power as an Agent of Transport |
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Theory of Denudation---Concluded |
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69 | (21) |
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Their Nature and Composition |
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Powerful Agents of Denudation |
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Erratic Blocks and loose Gravel spread out over Mountains, Plains, and Valleys, at the Bottom of the Sea |
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Characteristic Marks of moving Ice |
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Evidence of ancient Glacial Action |
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Illustrations from the Alps |
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From the Mountains of the Jura |
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Theory applied to Northern Europe |
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To Scotland, Wales, and Ireland |
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The Fact of Denudation established |
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Application of Argument suggested by this Fact |
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Scooping out of Valleys a Record of ancient Denudation |
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First step in Geological Theory |
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Stratified Rocks of Mechanical Origin---Theory Developed and Illustrated |
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90 | (15) |
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Formation of Stratified Rocks ascribed to the Agency of natural Causes |
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This Theory supported by Facts |
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Examples of Mechanical Rocks |
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Materials of which they are composed |
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Origin and History of these Materials traced out |
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Instances of Consolidation by Pressure |
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Consolidation perfected by natural Cements |
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Consolidation of Sandstone in Cornwall |
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Arrangement of Strata explained by intermittent Action of the Agents of Denudation |
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Stratified Rocks of Mechanical Origin---Further Illustrations |
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105 | (13) |
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Impossible to witness the Formation of Stratified Rocks in the Depths of the Ocean |
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On a small Scale, Examples are exhibited by Rivers and Lakes |
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Their extraordinary Fertility |
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Experiments of the Royal Society |
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Some Rivers fill up their own Channels |
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Large Tract of Alluvial Soil deposited by the Rhone in the Lake of Geneva |
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The Delta of the Ganges and Brahmapootra |
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Formation of Land in Holland |
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Floating Islands on the Rivers of America |
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Stratified Rocks of Chemical Origin |
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118 | (12) |
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Chemical Agency employed in the Formation of Mechanical Rocks |
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But some Rocks produced almost exclusively by the Action of Chemical Laws |
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Difference between a Mixture and a Solution |
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Stalactites and Stalagmites |
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Fantastic Columns in Limestone Caverns |
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The Grotto of Antiparos in the Grecian Archipelago |
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Wyer's Cave in the Blue Mountains of America |
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Growth of Limestone in the Solfatara Lake near Tivoli |
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Incrustations of the Anio |
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Formation of Travertine at the Baths of San Filippo and San Vignone |
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The Mineral Springs of Karlsbad |
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Stratified Rocks of Organic Origin---Illustrations from Animal Life |
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130 | (29) |
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Carbonate of Lime extracted from the Sea by the Intervention of Minute Animals |
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Supposed to be of Organic Origin |
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A Stratum of the same Kind now growing up on the Floor of the Atlantic Ocean |
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Their Geographical Distribution |
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Structure of the Zoophite |
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Agency of the Zoophite in the Construction of Deptus of the Ocean |
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On a sman Scare, Examples are exm-Coral Rock |
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How the sunken Reef is converted into an Island |
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And peopled with Plants and Animals |
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Recent Adventure of English Mariners on a Coral Reef |
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Difficulty proposed and considered |
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Coral Limestone in the solid Crust of the Earth |
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Stratified Rocks of Organic Origin---Illustrations from Vegetable Life |
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159 | (18) |
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Evident Traces of Plants and Trees in Coal-Mines |
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Coal made up of the same Elements as Wood |
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Beds of Coal found resting upon Clay in which are preserved the Roots of Trees |
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Insensible Transition from Wood to Coal |
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Accumulations of Drift Wood in Lakes and Estuaries |
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Seams of pure Coal with half carbonized Trees, some lying prostrate, some standing erect |
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Summary of the Argument hitherto pursued |
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Objection to this Argument from the Omnipotence of God |
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Fossil Remains---The Museum |
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177 | (23) |
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Theory of Stratified Rocks the Framework of Geological Science |
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This Theory brings Geology into Contact with Revelation |
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The Line of Reasoning hitherto pursued confirmed by the Testimony of Fossil Remains |
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Meaning of the Word Fossil |
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Inexhaustible Abundance of Fossils |
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Various States of Preservation |
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Experiments of Professor Goppert |
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Organic Rocks afford some Insight into the Fossil World |
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The Reality and Significance of Fossil Remains must be learned from Observation |
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Bones and Shells of Animals |
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Fossil Remains---The Exploration |
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200 | (35) |
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From the Museum to the Quarry |
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Fossil Fish in the Limestone Rocks of Monte Bolca |
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The Ichthyosaurus or Fish-like Lizard |
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Gigantic Dimensions of this Ancient Monster |
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The Cetiosaurus and its History |
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The Megatherium or Great Wild Beast |
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Profusion of Fossil Shells |
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Petrified Trees erect in the Limestone Rock of Portland |
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Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures |
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Fossil Remains afford undeniable Evidence of former Animal and Vegetable Life |
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Their Existence cannot be accounted for by the plastic Power of Nature |
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Nor can it reasonably be ascribed to a special Act of Creation |
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Geological Chronology---Principles of the System Explained and Developed |
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235 | (23) |
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Significance of Fossil Remains |
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Classification of existing Animal Life |
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Fossil Remains are found to fit in with this Classification |
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Succession of Organic Life |
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Time in Geology not measured by Years and Centuries |
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Successive Periods marked by successive Forms of Life |
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The Geologist aims at arranging these Periods in Chronological Order |
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Position of the various Groups of Strata not sufficient for this purpose |
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It is accomplished chiefly through the aid of Fossil Remains |
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Mode of Proceeding practically explained |
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Geological Chronology---Remarks on the Succession of Organic Life |
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258 | (18) |
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Summary of the History of Stratified Rocks |
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Striking Characteristics of certain Formations |
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Human Remains found only in superficial Deposits |
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Gradual Transition from the Organic Life of one Period to that of the next |
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Evidence in Favour of this Opinion |
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Advance from Lower to Higher Types of Organic Life as we ascend from the older to the more recent Formations |
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Economic Value of Geological Chronology |
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The Practical Man at Fault |
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The Geologist comes to his Aid, and saves him from useless Expense |
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Subterranean Heat---Its Existence Demonstrated by Facts |
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276 | (17) |
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Theory of Stratified Rocks supposes Disturbances of the Earth's Crust |
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These Disturbances ascribed by Geologists to the Action of Subterranean Heat |
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The Existence of Subterranean Heat, and its Power to move the Crust of the Earth, proved by direct Evidence |
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Supposed Igneous Origin of our Globe |
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Remarkable Increase of Temperature as we descend into the Earth's Crust |
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Steam issuing from Crevices in the Earth |
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A Glimpse at the Subterranean Fires |
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Vast Extent of Volcanic Action |
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Existence of Subterranean Heat an established Fact |
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Subterranean Heat---Its Powers Illustrated by Volcanos |
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293 | (17) |
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Effects of Subterranean Heat in the present Age of the World |
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Vast Accumulations of Solid Matter from the Eruptions of Volcanos |
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Buried Cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum |
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Curious Relics of Roman Life |
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Eruption of Jorullo in the Province of Mexico |
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Sumbawa in the Indian Archipelago |
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Mountain Mass of Etna the Product of Volcanic Eruptions |
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Santorin in the Grecian Archipelago |
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Subterranean Heat---Its Powers Illustrated by Earthquakes |
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310 | (16) |
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Earthquakes and Volcanos proceed from the same common Cause |
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Recent Earthquakes in New Zealand |
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Vast Tracts of Land permanently upraised |
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Earthquakes of Chili in the present Century |
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Crust of the Earth elevated |
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Earthquake of Cutch in India, 1819 |
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Remarkable Instance of Subsidence and Upheaval |
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Earthquake of Calabria, 1783 |
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Earthquake of Lisbon, 1755 |
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Great Destruction of Life and Property |
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Earthquake of Peru, August, 1868 |
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General Scene of Ruin and Devastation |
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A Ship with all her Crew carried a quarter of a Mile inland |
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Earthquake of Antioch, April, 1872 |
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Subterranean Heat---Its Powers Illustrated by Undulations of the Earth's Crust |
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326 | (11) |
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Gentle Movements of the Earth's Crust within Historic Times |
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Roman Roads and Temples submerged in the Bay of Balae |
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Temple of Jupiter Serapis |
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Singular Condition of its Columns |
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Proof of Subsidence and subsequent Upheaval |
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Indications of a second Subsidence now actually taking place |
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Gradual Upheaval of the Coast of Sweden |
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Summary of the Evidence adduced to establish this Fact |
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Subsidence of the Earth's Crust on the West Coast of Greenland |
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PART II. THE ANTIQUITY OF THE EARTH CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE HISTORY OF GENESIS |
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Statement of the Question and Exposition of the Author's View |
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337 | (26) |
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The General Principles of Geological Theory accepted by the Author |
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These Principles plainly import the extreme Antiquity of the Earth |
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Illustration from the Coal, the Chalk, and the Boulder Clay |
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This Conclusion not at variance with the Inspired History of Creation |
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Date of the Creation not fixed by Moses |
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Progress of Opinion on this Point |
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Cardinal Wiseman, Father Perrone, Father Pianciani |
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Doctor Buckland, Doctor Chalmers, Doctor Pye Smith, Hugh Miller |
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Charge of Rashness and Irreverence answered |
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Admonitions of Saint Augustine and Saint Thomas |
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First Hypothesis;---An Interval of Indefinite Duration Between the Creation of the World and the First Mosaic Day |
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363 | (21) |
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The Heavens and the Earth were created before the first Mosaid Day |
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Objection from Exodus, xx. 9--II |
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Author's Opinion supported by the early Fathers |
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Saint Basil, Saint Chrysostom, Saint Ambrose, Venerable Bede |
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Supported by eminent Doctors in the Schools |
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Peter Lombard, Hugh of Saint Victor, Saint Thomas |
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Supported by learned Commentators and Theologians |
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Distinguished Names on the other side, A Lapide, Tostatus, Saint Augustine |
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The Opinion is, at least, not at Variance with the Voice of Tradition |
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This Period of Created Existence may have been of Indefinite Length |
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And the Earth may have been furnished then, as now, with countless Tribes of Plants and Animals |
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Objections to this Hypothesis proposed and explained |
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Srcond Hypothesis;---The Days of Creation Long Periods of Time |
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384 | (31) |
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Diversity of Opinion among the early Fathers regarding the Days of Creation |
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No Obligation to adhere to the literal Interpretation |
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Burden of Proof lies with those who want to enforce it |
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Their Arguments considered and answered |
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First Argument : A Day, in the literal sense, means a Period of twenty-four Hours |
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Second Argument: The Days of Creation have an Evening and a Morning |
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Third Argument: Reason alleged for the Institution of the Sabbath Day |
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Application of the Second Hypothesis---Conclusion |
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415 | |
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Comparison between the Order of Creation as set forth in the Narrative of Moses and in the Records of Geology |
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Scheme of Adjustment between the Periods of Geology and the Days of Genesis |
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It is not to be regarded as an Established Theory, but as an Admissible Hypothesis |
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Either the first Hypothesis or the second is sufficient to meet the Demands of Geology as regards the Antiquity of the Earth |
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The Mosaic History of Creation stands alone without Rivals or Competitors |
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| Introduction |
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1 | (15) |
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Intellectual character of this age |
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The rejection of authority is inherited from the last century |
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Importance of this to scientific progress |
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Idea of the unity and universality of natural law |
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Newton's law of gravitation has shown the uniformity of natural law through space |
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Geology has shown the constancy of natural law through time |
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The thermo-dynamic theory has shown the laws of force to be true on all scales |
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The same tendency is discernible in the sciences of life and mind |
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The question of the origin of species |
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Habit of regarding no subject as isolated |
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Connexion of mental science with the science of life |
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This is contrasted with the scholastic tendency to isolate every science |
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Wider meaning given to the word science than formerly |
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Sciences of history and of language |
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Benefit of this widened view of science |
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Summary of preceding paragraphs |
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What is most characteristic of the scientific conceptions of this age, is the importance attached to historical methods |
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Gibbon's ``Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' |
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How the same subject would be attempted now |
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History has become scientific, and science historical |
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The problems of vital development are genetic |
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History of vital development |
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Contrasted with geological history |
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Genetic studies and methods are characteristic of this age |
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Development is the criterion of morphology |
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To know what a thing is, we must know its origin |
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Wide applicability of this axiom |
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The recognition of this principle is what is most characteristic of this age |
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Toleration of all opinions |
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16 | (9) |
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Four laws of conservation |
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Amount of rotation, how estimated |
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Conservation of areas, a synonymous term with conservation of rotation |
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Definitions of Momentum, Force, Energy, and Work |
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Potential and actual energy |
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Their mutual transformation in the motion of a pendulum |
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Energy may be stored : instance of the hydraulic accumulator |
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Perpetual motion : in what sense impossible |
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Faraday's question, as to the law of conservation |
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Faraday's question as to gravity and electricity |
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Controversy as to the measure of Force |
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Energy of motion and momentum |
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Their difference illustrated |
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Transformations of Energy |
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25 | (7) |
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Energy of motion, and heat, are measurable by quantity |
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Dynamical equivalent of heat |
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All matter is perfectly elastic |
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Motion transformed into electricity |
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Quantitative equivalence of all forms of energy |
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Radiant heat, light, and the actinic rays classed together as radiance |
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Heating power of moonbeams |
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Transformation of motion into heat, and the converse: motion into electricity, and the converse: electricity into heat, and the converse: heat into radiance, and the converse |
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No exception to the reappearance of the energy that has done work |
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Forces that cannot produce energy |
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Static and Kinetic Energy |
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32 | (7) |
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Electric and magnetic forces not primary |
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Static and kinetic energy |
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Transformations of static energy |
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Note : Electric and Magnetic Energy |
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Electro-dynamic induction |
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Experiment II. : Explanation |
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Experiment IV.: Explanation |
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Electro-static induction, and continuous currents, probably both due to molecular tension |
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Electro-magnetic induction |
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Experiment VI.: Explanation |
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Experiments VII. and VIII. |
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Experiment IX.: Elongation of iron bar during magnetisation |
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Sounds produced by magnetisation |
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The magneto-electric machine transforms mechanical into electric energy |
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39 | (8) |
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Force originates energy, but energy cannot originate primary forces |
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Instances of forces not primary |
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Three primary forces, gravity, capillarity, and affinity |
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Summary of their properties |
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All primary forces are attractive |
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Potential energy is a joint function of two mutually attracting bodies |
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No distinction between combustibles and supporters of combustion |
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Forces belong to the original constitution of matter |
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Theory of Descartes disproved |
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Matter may have none but dynamical properties |
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May not be extended, and not impenetrable |
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47 | (8) |
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Energy given out in combination, a constant quantity, and sufficient to decompose the compound |
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Energy once become actual has been parted with |
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Anecdote of an ironmaster |
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Chemical notation expressive of combinations |
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Thermo-negative and thermo-positive compounds |
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Dynamic equivalents of the elements |
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Red or amorphous phosphorus |
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Note :---Inaccurate language respecting affinity as a force |
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The Motive Powers of the Universe |
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55 | (13) |
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Theory of the past and future eternity of the present order of the universe untrue |
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Definition of motive power |
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Heat is not always motive power |
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Illustration from a steam-engine |
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Transformation of energy of motion into heat, the prevailing tendency |
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Consequent destruction of motive power |
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Earth's internal heat is constantly being lost |
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Sun hottest at the equator, and why |
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Motions of the sun's atmosphere |
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Combustion an insufficient source |
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Infinite supply of meteors possible, but would subvert the equilibrium of the solar system |
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Two alternatives : exhaustion of sun's heat, or subversion of equilibrium of the solar system |
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Each separate system is mortal |
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A past eternity impossible |
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Transformation of energy in the process of condensation |
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Solar and volcanic heat have the same origin |
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Potential energy of the original nebula |
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Rotation of a nebulous mass |
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Solar radiance the great motive power |
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Energy of wind and tide; their common source |
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68 | (16) |
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Contrasts and resemblances between crystals and organisms |
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Crystalline species defined |
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Foreign substances modify forms |
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Forms intermediate between species |
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Crystals are bounded by plane surfaces: may be described mathematically |
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Crystals have a limit of size: are hard: impermeable by water: grow at the surface only: are molecularly immobile |
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Ratios of intercepts to parameters |
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Crystallographic elements |
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Variations of form, irregular and regular |
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Forms of crystals are modified by the medium they are formed in |
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Intermediate forms, showing the true affinities of the rhombohedral system |
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Affinities, true and apparent |
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Compound crystals: branching, chain-like, double, circular |
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Interpenetrating crystals |
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84 | (6) |
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Organisms contrasted with crystals |
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Organic compounds: is the distinction between them and inorganic ones absolute? |
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Life works through the chemical forces, as an engineer through a machine |
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The vital principle defined |
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Origin of life a question for experiment |
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Life had its origin in creative power |
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Origin of species a distinct question |
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Organic compounds thermo-positive |
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90 | (20) |
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Vegetables form organic compounds, which are oxidised by animals |
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Their actions are opposite |
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Opposite dynamic functions of animals and vegetables |
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Vegetables take up energy |
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Dynamic action of vegetables in decomposing carbonic acid |
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Contrast of vegetables and animals |
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Organisms transform matter and energy |
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Relation of vegetables and of animals to energy |
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Animals produce heat and motion |
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Motion independent of structure |
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Animal heat, motion, light, and electricity: their origin is chemical |
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Does the animal organism store energy? Illustration from Armstrong's Accumulator |
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Heat produced at death; and during starvation |
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Relation of the nervous system to animal heat |
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Heat of inflamed parts due to nervous action |
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Nervous action always causes transformation of energy, sometimes into motion, sometimes into heat |
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Effect of cutting the spinal cord |
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|
|
Experimental proof that the muscles store energy |
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|
|
Motive powers of vegetables |
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|
|
Vegetables probably store vital energy |
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|
|
Relation of organisms to energy and to matter |
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Death followed by chemical transformations |
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Chemical action during life |
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|
Transformation of vital energy in death, and in disease |
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|
|
Analogy of life to magnetism |
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|
|
Dependence of development on heat |
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|
|
Transformation of energy in organic development |
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|
|
Energy of life depends on the supply of oxygen |
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|
|
The most highly organized plants and animals are air-breathers |
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|
|
Note : On the Relation of Muscular Action to Heat |
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|
|
Cold produced in muscular action |
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|
|
Parallel fact in thermo-electricity |
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|
|
These cases are exceptional |
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|
110 | (15) |
|
Three kinds of formative principles; the first forms spherical aggregations |
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|
Agate nodules, having structure depending on form |
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|
Second kind, producing crystals, having forms depending on structure |
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|
Third kind, producing organisms |
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|
|
Organization inexplicable |
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|
|
Life is the cause of organization |
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|
Organic germs are without structure, as are some mature organisms |
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|
Germinal matter has no structure |
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|
Crystallization and Organization |
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|
Reaction of formed on unformed material |
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|
Three relations in science: cause, resemblance, purpose |
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Sciences of resemblance, or classificatory sciences |
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Importance of classification |
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|
|
Its basis in fundamental characters |
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|
Fundamental characters in chemistry, crystallography, and biology |
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|
Purpose in creation peculiar to organization: has analogies in man's work |
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|
Organic structure implies function |
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|
Is this relation a case of that of cause and effect? |
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|
Purpose is more traceable, and cause less so, as we ascend in nature |
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|
Purposes in organization are only relative |
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|
Final cause, an inaccurate expression |
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|
Organic adaptation implies intelligence |
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|
Purpose not discoverable in the inorganic creation |
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|
125 | (7) |
|
Development consists in the acquisition of structure by a structureless gernt |
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|
|
Histology is the science of tissues; anatomy, of organs |
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|
|
Repair of injuries a case of development |
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|
Germinal matter is without structure |
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Formed material cannot be further transformed |
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Why the higher organisms do not live when cut in pieces |
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|
|
Propagation by spontaneous division, and by budding |
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|
|
Separate generative organs in the higher classes |
|
|
|
Origin of species: is it also by development from simple germs, through descent with modification? |
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|
Deviations from strict logical method |
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|
|
Origin of species, and origin of life, distinct questions |
|
|
|
The Direction of Development |
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|
132 | (13) |
|
Highest development is greatest complexity, and greatest distinctness of dissimilar parts |
|
|
|
Physiological division of labour |
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|
|
Combined action of parts is most perfect in the highest organisms |
|
|
|
Physiological centralization, or combination |
|
|
|
Special perfection in an organ is incompatible with general adaptability |
|
|
|
Efficiency of each and all members increased by division of labour and combination |
|
|
|
Definiteness, a result of division of labour |
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|
Worms, millepedes, and insects |
|
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|
|
Separation of internal and external parts, universal |
|
|
|
External parts protective |
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|
|
Separation of nutritive and reproductive organs, not universal, and not fundamental |
|
|
|
Separation of cellular and vascular structures |
|
|
|
Cells unite to form vessels |
|
|
|
Separation, in animals, of nutritive and nervo-muscular systems |
|
|
|
Nerves are to muscles what vessels are to nutritive system |
|
|
|
Internuncial function of nerves |
|
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|
|
Velocity of nervous stimulus measured |
|
|
|
Nerves, probably, transmit energy |
|
|
|
Each muscle usually transforms energy for itself |
|
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|
|
Development of vessels out of cells |
|
|
|
Resemblance of nervous fibre to muscular |
|
|
|
Blood-vessels and nerves ramify |
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|
Blood-vessels and nerves are abundant in the same places |
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|
|
Their action is heightened together |
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|
Want of fresh blood causes insensibility |
|
|
|
Connexion of heart with brain |
|
|
|
Dependence of nervous action on circulation not reciprocal |
|
|
|
Opposite relations of blood and nerve to muscle |
|
|
|
Blood supplies energy as well as matter |
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|
Note: The Functions of the Nervous System |
|
|
|
Lewes's theory of sensation disproved |
|
|
|
Impossible to say where sensation begins |
|
|
|
Nerve-fibre may act without ganglionic influence |
|
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|
145 | (9) |
|
Organic differentiation and integration, dependence and subordination |
|
|
|
Space and time are conditions of all things |
|
|
|
Consequently mathematics is the ground of physical science |
|
|
|
Dynamics the basis of physical science |
|
|
|
Secondary dynamical sciences |
|
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|
|
Series of sciences each dependent on the preceding |
|
|
|
Dependence not reciprocal |
|
|
|
Dependence is not only of the sciences, but of the things |
|
|
|
Accidental connexion of histology with optics |
|
|
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|
|
|
Dependence of vital laws one on the other |
|
|
|
Vegetative, animal, and mental life |
|
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|
Subordination of organic functions |
|
|
|
Matter subordinate to life |
|
|
|
Unconscious life subordinate to mind |
|
|
|
Muscular action essentially unconscious |
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|
Dependence necessary: subordination not so |
|
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|
154 | (13) |
|
Classification of organic functions |
|
|
|
Different classifications for different purposes |
|
|
|
Development of functions by differentiation |
|
|
|
Their classification on this basis |
|
|
|
Vegetative functions chemical, and structural |
|
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|
|
Differentiation of tissues |
|
|
|
Growth and development antagonistic |
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|
Transformation of energy in development |
|
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|
|
Classification of vegetative functions |
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|
Four grades of the motor function |
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|
Motion in response to a stimulus, in plants: in animals without nerves: through nervous agency |
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|
Reflex action in heart, lungs, and stomach |
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|
|
Reflex actions performed abnormally |
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|
Cause of sensation unknown |
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|
|
Voluntary action: depending on nervous stimulus |
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|
|
Development of functions by differentiation |
|
|
|
Note A:---Only vegetables decompose carbonic acid |
|
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|
|
Only the green parts of vegetables decompose it, and only in the light |
|
|
|
Vegetable tribes that do not decompose carbonic acid |
|
|
|
No absolute distinction between vegetables and animals |
|
|
|
Note B: Formative and Motor Functions |
|
|
|
Actions in Foraminifera at once formative and motor |
|
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|
|
167 | (20) |
|
Meaning of the word habit |
|
|
|
Conscious actions becoming habitual |
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|
|
Unconscious instinct of the bee |
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|
|
Motor habits of climbing plants |
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|
All vital actions become habitual, tending to repeat themselves |
|
|
|
Apparent inorganic habits fundamentally different |
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|
|
Theory that organic habits depend on structure, contradicted by embryology |
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|
|
Inherited characters appear sometimes at the same age as in the parent, sometimes earlier |
|
|
|
Hereditary tendency without special habit |
|
|
|
Habit is changeable, and spontaneously variable |
|
|
|
I believe in no limit to variation |
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|
|
Instance of acquiring languages |
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|
|
Habits are weakened and destroyed by disuse |
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|
|
Strength of a habit depends on time during which it has been exercised, and on time since it has been exercised |
|
|
|
Present strength of a habit |
|
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|
|
Hereditary characters are the most tenacious |
|
|
|
Weakening of habits by disuse is a case of the general law |
|
|
|
All actions become habitual: all habits become hereditary : all habits are variable |
|
|
|
Reappearance of old habits |
|
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|
|
Reversion to ancestral characters |
|
|
|
Laws of habit are elementary and universal laws of life |
|
|
|
Active habits strengthen, passive impressions weaken, by repetition |
|
|
|
Both are cases of one law |
|
|
|
Instance of the effect of an accustomed sound |
|
|
|
The same is true of the unconscious life |
|
|
|
Effect of medicines and stimulants |
|
|
|
Action of the heart under a stimulus |
|
|
|
General law respecting passive impressions |
|
|
|
Instance of climbing plants |
|
|
|
Organs grow with exercise |
|
|
|
Lungs, muscles, and brain |
|
|
|
Laws of habit are true of both mind and body |
|
|
|
Laws of habit do not account for every particular habit |
|
|
|
Voluntary actions may become habitual |
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|
|
This will not account for all habits |
|
|
|
Question of the origin of species |
|
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|
Effect of habit on organs |
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|
|
Great changes are destructive |
|
|
|
This is not always physically explicable |
|
|
|
Organisms are destroyed by changes that they cannot become habituated to |
|
|
|
Great and sudden changes of circumstances are destructive |
|
|
|
Corresponding changes in habit are impossible |
|
|
|
Great changes, if not sudden, are often not destructive |
|
|
|
Corresponding changes in habit are possible |
|
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|
|
Active and passive habits |
|
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|
|
Improvement in sight and fleetness |
|
|
|
Note : Growth of Organs with Exercise |
|
|
|
Why do organs grow with exercise? |
|
|
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|
|
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|
|
|
Possible nervous action in increasing nutrition in exercised parts |
|
|
|
Increased flow of blood to exercised parts, possibly due to relaxation of the nerves of the arteries |
|
|
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|
|
187 | (18) |
|
Changes of habit, functionally produced, and spontaneous |
|
|
|
Benefit of slight changes |
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|
Benefit of slight mixtures of race |
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|
Slight changes are agreeable, great ones disagreeable |
|
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|
|
Effect of confinement to a small area |
|
|
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|
|
|
Generation is only a modification of the general vital process |
|
|
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|
|
|
Simplest form of sexual reproduction in unicellular Algae |
|
|
|
Its essential condition is mixture of germinal matter from two sources |
|
|
|
Zygnema: simplest form of sexual distinction |
|
|
|
Purpose of sexual distinction, to increase the difference of the two sources |
|
|
|
Hermaphrodite animals, and plants, not always self-fertilizing |
|
|
|
Agency of insects in fertilizing flowers |
|
|
|
Sexuality distinct from the existence of separate generative organs: depends on the necessity of slight changes |
|
|
|
No species can live an indefinite time without sexual reproduction |
|
|
|
Variability promoted by slight change of conditions, and by mixture of races |
|
|
|
Variability and modifiability |
|
|
|
Spontaneous variation, how far connected with the laws of habit: originates only with new individuals |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Variations are most abundant in cases of sexual generation |
|
|
|
Intermediate breeds are difficult to obtain |
|
|
|
Reversion common in mixed breeds |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Variation usually slow among animals: often sudden among plants |
|
|
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|
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|
|
|
Only some races variable, and some characters of those |
|
|
|
Correlation of variations |
|
|
|
Homologous parts vary together |
|
|
|
Mental and motor characters are more variable than formative ones |
|
|
|
The minutest structure is the least variable |
|
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|
The most constant characters in species are also the most constant in classes |
|
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|
The lowest organisms are most variable |
|
|
|
Parts repeated many times are variable |
|
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|
|
Crystals vary with the medium from which they are deposited |
|
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Similar variations in fungi |
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Functionally produced modifications in fungi |
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Individuality, difficult to define among the lower organisms |
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Morphological units of different orders |
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The Problem of the Origin of Species |
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205 | (14) |
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Have all species been separately created, or derived from a few original germs? |
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I believe the latter. Where I dissent from Darwin |
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I believe in a guiding Intelligence |
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Development theory, not contrary to experience |
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No intrinsic improbability |
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Analogy of individual development |
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Separation of species by mutual sterility, not absolute |
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Reason of mutual sterility unknown |
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Suggestion on the subject |
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Transitional forms, often still in existence, but mostly lost |
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Imperfection of the geological record |
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Discovery of intermediate forms |
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Variability of histological characters |
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Species are permanent varieties |
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Varieties are most numerous where species are so |
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Aberrant genera are poor in species |
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Characters variable as between species are so within the species |
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Reversion in varieties, and in species |
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Laws of variation, and of reversion |
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Extension of the above-stated law of variation |
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Development of Echinodermata |
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Extension of the above-stated law of reversion |
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Circular and bilateral flowers |
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Non-sexual generation in worms, Crustacea, and insects |
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Note:---Is there a limit to variation? |
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I maintain the negative, in opposition to usual belief |
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Argument of North British reviewer for the affirmative |
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Limit of smallness in dogs has been attained |
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Variation held in check by reversion |
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Tendency to revert may die out with lapse of time, and limit to variation may recede |
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Reason of the possibility of this |
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219 | (9) |
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Cuvier's doctrine of organic adaptation |
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Functional and structural adaptations |
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The form of each part is determined by the rest, and all by the animal's life |
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This is true: but will it explain all the facts? |
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We must admit a further principle |
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Bearings of Cuvier's doctrine on morphology and on distribution |
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External circumstances do not determine distribution |
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Distribution of Mammalia in the old continents, Australia, South America, and Madagascar |
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Wingless birds of New Zealand |
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Extinct animals of each region resemble the living ones |
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Resemblance of species in conformable strata |
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Connexion by descent, but modified |
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Foreign species gaining on native ones |
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Birds on the same, unable to fly |
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Cuvier's principle will not explain the facts of distribution |
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These facts support the theory of descent with modification |
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228 | (13) |
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Is all morphology explicable by the law of adaptation? |
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Crystalline and organic morphology |
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Formative laws of crystallization independent of function |
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The same probably true, in part, of organic forms |
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Correlations in all organisms not referable to adaptation |
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Homologies of the parts of a tree in flower |
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In what sense metagenesis occurs in flowering plants |
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Homologies of the parts of Hydrozoa : of flowering plants |
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Their correlations not due to adaptation |
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Differences of the sexes not fundamental |
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Secondary sexual characters are variable |
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Metamorphosis in Insects, Batrachians, and Crustacea |
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Resemblance between the forms of the same species |
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Relations of parts of the individual |
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Homology of hands and feet |
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Their tendency to vary together, like similar parts of crystals |
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Only ungulate animals have horns |
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Resemblances of different parts in the same organism |
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Correlation and adaptation distinct |
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Crystalline and organic morphology |
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Note:---Approach to metagenesis in Vallisneria spiralis |
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241 | (11) |
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Specific morphology logically comes before comparative |
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Wing of bird and of insect |
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Homologies of respiratory organs variable |
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Analogies and homologies within the species |
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Legs and arms of Crustacea |
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Homological resemblances carried further than necessary |
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Homological resemblances and adaptive differences |
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Hand, foot, wing, and paddle, all homologous |
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Adaptation will not account for homology |
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Vertebrae separate in the lower Vertebrata, partly united in the higher |
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How is homology to be explained? |
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Unity of plan is no explanation |
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No law subject to exceptions can be ultimate |
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Cervical vertebrae of Mammalia |
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Intelligent and unintelligent powers |
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Homology due to common descent |
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Exceptions due to spontaneous variation |
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Toes of Ungulata : leg-bones of serpents: wing-bones of apteryx |
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Comparison of these to fossils |
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Origin of these by descent |
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Exceptions to laws of adaptation, and of homology |
|
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Unity of type, a result of community of descent |
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Problem of origin and modification of types |
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How do we know that rudimentary organs are aborted, and not nascent? |
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Organs, if useless, must be aborted |
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Nascent lungs in lepidosiren |
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252 | (26) |
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Development is from simple germs |
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Species become unlike as their germs develop |
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Development is differentiation |
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Embryos of higher forms resemble lower forms |
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Development is indirect in most cases |
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Generally most nearly direct in lowest groups |
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Process among the lower Invertebrata |
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They begin in the form of Protozoa |
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Change of plan in development |
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Metamorphosis before birth |
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Insect larvae resemble lower forms of Articulate |
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Larvae resemble immature low forms |
|
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Transition between water and air-breathing Vertebrates |
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Circulation in vertebrate embryo |
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Development of spinal column |
|
|
|
Blood corpuscles, white and red: their threefold relation |
|
|
|
Can these facts be referred to the principle of adaptation? |
|
|
|
We do not know the data for an answer |
|
|
|
They are, more probably, records of ancestral forms |
|
|
|
Useless organs, and useless modes of development |
|
|
|
Rudimentary organs in the embryo only |
|
|
|
Rudimentary organs largest in the embryo |
|
|
|
Differentiation of embryos |
|
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Characters of the widest group appear first |
|
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Characters of widest groups are least variable |
|
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|
Connexion of this with Von Bar's law |
|
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|
Mollusca, Articulata, and Vertebrata |
|
|
|
Characters not embryonic are subject to exception |
|
|
|
Unsymmetrical molluscan development |
|
|
|
Importance of embryonic characters in classification |
|
|
|
Cirrhipedes: their crustacean larvae |
|
|
|
Dorsibranchiata, and tubicolae |
|
|
|
Reversion is sometimes the retention of embryonic characters |
|
|
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|
Fundamental and adaptive characters |
|
|
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|
Homological resemblances are fundamental |
|
|
|
Analogical ones are adaptive |
|
|
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|
|
|
Constancy of fundamental characters, a case of the law of habit |
|
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|
|
Likeness of larval form proves affinity: but not the converse |
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Fresh-water Crustacea undergo no metamorphosis |
|
|
|
Direct development substituted for indirect |
|
|
|
Laws of habit explaining metamorphosis, and the loss of metamorphosis |
|
|
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|
Young pigeons of various breeds |
|
|
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|
Air-breathing Vertebrates |
|
|
|
Descent of the latter from fishes |
|
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|
Insects developed from worm-like larvae |
|
|
|
Insects directly developed |
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|
Fresh-water Malacostraca have lost their metamorphoses by variation |
|
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|
|
Hydrozoa with flower-like generative organs |
|
|
|
Generative organs becoming detached as Medusae |
|
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|
Medusa producing Medusae directly |
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|
Note: Anomalies of Development |
|
|
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|
|
|
Development of Echinoderms |
|
|
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|
|
Peculiarity of that of the star-fish |
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
278 | (14) |
|
Classification depends on Embryology |
|
|
|
What is meant by the facts of classification |
|
|
|
Questions of classification are real |
|
|
|
Questions of classification which are merely verbal |
|
|
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|
|
The value of any character in classification depends on being an index to others |
|
|
|
Value in classification of rudimentary organs, and of organs not connected with special habits |
|
|
|
The development theory explains all this |
|
|
|
Affinity means kindred; as of Cirrhipedes to Crustaceans |
|
|
|
|
|
|
How far the development theory is proved |
|
|
|
Reason of importance of rudimentary organs: of embryonic characters: of the flower |
|
|
|
Origin of organic forms by the accumulation of variations |
|
|
|
Divergent lines of variation |
|
|
|
Divergence and re-divergence |
|
|
|
Classification is genealogy |
|
|
|
No reunion after divergence |
|
|
|
Metamorphosis generally is progress |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Specific change also is generally progress |
|
|
|
Groups are generally united by their lower members |
|
|
|
Animal and vegetable kingdoms |
|
|
|
Their probable common origin |
|
|
|
No absolute distinction between them |
|
|
|
Their highest forms are totally unlike |
|
|
|
Affinities of Algae, Lichens, and Fungi : of fishes and air-breathing Vertebrata |
|
|
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|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
Their lower limit is indefinite, their higher groups have a definite character |
|
|
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|
|
|
Arthropoda, descended from Annelids |
|
|
|
Number of segments in head and body of Arthropods |
|
|
|
Acari, though the lowest Arthropods, do not revert to the worm-type |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Classification in a single series is impossible |
|
|
|
``Natura non facit saltum'' |
|
|
|
The whole of one group is seldom higher than the whole of a kindred group |
|
|
|
Organic affinities seem like a network |
|
|
|
I believe they are in form like a tree |
|
|
|
Groups never re-unite after diverging |
|
|
|
Affinities will probably never be perfectly traced |
|
|
|
Many links have been discovered, and some apparent links have been found not to be real ones |
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
Affinity is distinct from resemblance |
|
|
|
Analogy of human kindreds |
|
|
|
Why is there organic progress? |
|
|
|
An exhaustive classification would include not only species but individuals |
|
|
|
Note:---Crystalline and organic species |
|
|
|
The Causes of Development |
|
|
292 | (16) |
|
How has the transmutation of species been caused? |
|
|
|
How has organic structure been produced? |
|
|
|
We must begin by trying known causes |
|
|
|
Organization is adaptation, morphological and histological |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Two possible processes : self-adaptation, and natural selection |
|
|
|
I believe in an organizing Intelligence, over and above these, distinct from physical causation |
|
|
|
Where life is, there is intelligence : and most discernible in the highest functions |
|
|
|
The laws of habit are not intelligent |
|
|
|
Formation of cellular tissue |
|
|
|
Circulatory vessels, how formed |
|
|
|
Cause of circulation in air-breathing plants; and in the lowest animals |
|
|
|
Tendency of circulation to form channels for itself |
|
|
|
Respiratory organs : their variability |
|
|
|
Respiration is a physical process |
|
|
|
Possible origin of respiratory organs |
|
|
|
Homologies of the respiratory organs of insects : of air-breathing Vertebrata |
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
Stems taking the functions of leaves |
|
|
|
Interchange of function between secretory organs |
|
|
|
Will purely physical actions account for the origin of all structures? |
|
|
|
Organs improve with use : the difficulty is first origin |
|
|
|
Origin of nerve and muscle : of the eye and the ear |
|
|
|
No physical causes will account for the origin of the eye and the ear; nor of the egg-shell, nor of the skull, nor of nut-shells |
|
|
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|
|
|
|
308 | (20) |
|
Natural selection defined to be among spontaneous variations |
|
|
|
Causes of variation in domestic races |
|
|
|
Changes of circumstances in geological time |
|
|
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|
|
|
Races probably mix little in nature |
|
|
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|
|
|
Favourable variations will be preserved and inherited |
|
|
|
Divergence of character, how produced by selection in domestic races, and in wild races |
|
|
|
How will incipient races be kept apart? |
|
|
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|
|
How wild races are kept distinct |
|
|
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|
|
Bat and flying lemur not descended from a squirrel |
|
|
|
Membranes not produced by self-adaptation, but by natural selection |
|
|
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|
|
|
Self-adaptation and natural selection co-operating |
|
|
|
Extensor muscle of wing of flying lemur |
|
|
|
Will natural selection account for closely correlated or complex organs? |
|
|
|
Quotation from Herbert Spencer |
|
|
|
Complexities of the eye and the ear not due to natural selection |
|
|
|
Darwin on the simplest eyes |
|
|
|
Natural selection inapplicable to the highest organization |
|
|
|
Improbability equal to impossibility |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Co-operation of parts in an organ, and of organs in an organism |
|
|
|
The eye has been formed on three separate lines of descent |
|
|
|
Skulls of Cephalopoda and of Vertebrata |
|
|
|
Striated muscular fibre in Annulosa and in Vertebrata |
|
|
|
Spontaneous variation and natural selection is a process of blind trial, and inapplicable to complex conditions |
|
|
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|
|
|
Imitative colouring in birds, in the Polar bear, and in the ermine |
|
|
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|
|
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|
|
|
Mr. Bates on mimicry among butterflies |
|
|
|
Its purpose is protection |
|
|
|
Its cause is natural selection |
|
|
|
Note: Formation of Complex Organs: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Eyes of amphibious animals |
|
|
|
General Remarks on the Development of Species |
|
|
328 | (14) |
|
Origin of life in Creative Power |
|
|
|
Only two theories are possible as to the origin of species : separate creations, or development |
|
|
|
Question raised by geological discovery |
|
|
|
Difficulties of development theory partly are probably insoluble, but they lessen with the advance of knowledge |
|
|
|
No presumption against the development theory |
|
|
|
Arguments from experience against it are worthless |
|
|
|
The argument from experience is in its favour |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Development theory applicable to man |
|
|
|
Man's brain not essentially unlike the ape's |
|
|
|
The development of man from the lowest forms is paralleled in the life of every individual |
|
|
|
Man's spiritual nature may be a direct result of Creative Power |
|
|
|
The law of organic types explained by the theory of development |
|
|
|
The development theory does not answer the question of the cause of development |
|
|
|
Geological evidence favours the belief in advance |
|
|
|
Reptiles have given way to warm-blooded animals |
|
|
|
Geological argument against Darwin's theory |
|
|
|
Improvement goes on most rapidly in the highest classes |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Effect of isolation in producing change |
|
|
|
The largest areas produce the most dominant species |
|
|
|
General effect of geological conditions |
|
|
|
Tendency of geological changes to constantly greater variation |
|
|
|
Correlation of variations |
|
|
|
Lowest organisms are most plastic |
|
|
|
Classes are usually united by their lowest members |
|
|
|
There may be exceptions to this |
|
|
|
Apparent inconsistencies of my argument |
|
|
|
Life does not supersede, but works through, the properties of matter : so intelligence with unintelligent forces |
|
|
|
These relations are inexplicable |
|
|
|
We have mental experience of the action of intelligence |
|
|
|
Self-adaptation is guided by intelligence |
|
|
|
Intelligence determines co-operating variations to occur together |
|
|
|
Intelligence is most dominant in the highest life |
|
|
|
Note A : The Operation of Natural Selection |
|
|
|
Why does natural selection preserve the highest? |
|
|
|
Because the highest are most efficient |
|
|
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|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
Chance of leaving offspring partly determined by fecundity |
|
|
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|
|
High organization and fecundity are opposed |
|
|
|
Bearing of this law on natural selection |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Note B :---The domestic and wild Guinea-pig do not breed together |
|
|
|
|
|
342 | |
|
Variation is slow : but I think not so slow as Darwin maintains |
|
|
|
Possible sudden origin of new species |
|
|
|
Such has occurred under domestication |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Instinct will prevent crossing |
|
|
|
Crossing might not produce a mixed race |
|
|
|
Sudden origin of a wild race would not be discovered |
|
|
|
Geological time too short for the theory of slow variation |
|
|
|
Age of the earth, according to Sir W. Thomson |
|
|
|
The greyhound an artificial species; produced in perhaps 500 years, by slow variation : how long would the production of the highest forms from the lowest require, by the same process? |
|
|
|
Variation is slower among wild than tame races |
|
|
|
How selection will act in the wild state |
|
|
|
|
|
|
How far I agree with Darwin |
|
|
|
Note:---Sir William Thomson on the age of the earth |
|
|
|
|
|
1 | (11) |
|
Formative, motor, and mental functions, all guided by intelligence |
|
|
|
Instinctive intelligence of the bee the same in kind with formative intelligence |
|
|
|
Instinct is not more wonderful than formative intelligence |
|
|
|
Purpose in the formation and action of the iris |
|
|
|
Gradation from unconscious to conscious and rational motor actions in the eye, and in the digestive organs |
|
|
|
Actions determined by sensation |
|
|
|
All motor actions are intelligent, whether conscious or not |
|
|
|
Intelligence, unconscious and conscious, formative and mental, is fundamentally the same |
|
|
|
This view includes instinct |
|
|
|
We cannot point out the beginning of sensation, or of consciousness |
|
|
|
Most thought, perhaps all, is partly unconscious |
|
|
|
Identity of formative, instinctive, and mental intelligence |
|
|
|
A special act of creation is not necessary for every new adaptation |
|
|
|
Moral difficulties lessened by this view |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Unnatural or immoral instincts |
|
|
|
All matter is endowed with forces, and vitalized matter is endowed with intelligence |
|
|
|
Intelligence tends to guide all vital actions in the direction that is best for the health of the organism |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Vital actions minister not only to the individual, but to the race |
|
|
|
Reproductive and maternal functions |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Development of unconscious action into conscious |
|
|
|
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|
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Instincts of social insects cannot be inherited |
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Darwin's explanation by natural selection |
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I think them due to Intelligence |
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12 | (6) |
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Mind is developed out of sensation |
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Consciousness inexplicable |
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Consciousness is of sensation |
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Sensation without consciousness |
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Consciousness distinct from sensation |
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Acquired taste due to a change not in the sensation, but in the consciousness of it |
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Analogons impressions from different senses |
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Consciousness is indivisible |
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Biological ground of this in nervous centralization |
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Sensation is divisible: consciousness not |
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Consciousness not hereditary |
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Instance: how birds acquire a dread of man |
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18 | (24) |
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Differentiation into organs of vegetative and of animal life |
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Contractility the fundamental character of the latter |
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Nervous system developed out of muscular |
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Its primary function is to transmit stimuli to the muscles |
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Nervous system never simple |
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Nervous function differentiated from muscular function |
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Sensation does not exist at first |
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It begins probably with special sense |
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Sentient and insentient nerves histologically alike |
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Parallel development of organs and of functions |
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Corpora striata: their relation to the sensory ganglia |
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Consensual action: its similarity to merely reflex action |
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Sensation at first is only the guide to action |
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Insects have only this, with some possible exceptions |
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Sensory ganglia developed out of spinal cord, and cerebrum out of sensory ganglia |
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The cerebrum is the organ of consciousness |
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Largest in the highest animals |
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Cerebrum not in direct connexion with the organs of external life |
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The functions of its parts can be ascertained only by analogy |
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Phrenological theory disproved by facts |
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One nervous current producing another |
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Consciousness is thus produced |
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Nerves and nerve-currents of consciousness |
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Is consciousness produced in the sensory ganglia or the cerebrum? |
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Consciousness of thought is distinct from thought |
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Recollection without apparent cause |
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The sensory ganglia are the seat of consciousness |
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Consciousness of thought: how produced |
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Its rudimentary form is a consciousness of sensation outlasting the sensation |
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Recollection due to the reproduction of a current of consciousness |
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Consensual action produced by remembered consciousness |
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The same action may be at one time consensual, at another voluntary, according to the nature of the stimulus |
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Thought acts on the motor ganglia through the nerves of will |
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Position of the nerves of will |
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Voluntary actions may become consensual |
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This may become hereditary in animals, as in birds, and in dogs |
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This explanation will not apply to all consensual actions |
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Voluntary action has been developed out of consensual, and consensual out of insentient |
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Enumeration of mental actions |
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Mutual relation of the nervous organs of mind |
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Consciousness of sensation |
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Consciousness produced by thought |
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Functions of sensory and motor nerves and ganglia are known |
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Those of the cerebral nerves may be inferred by analogy |
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Cerebral nerves of consciousness, of thought, and of will |
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Three primary mental functions probably corresponding thereto |
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Nerves of consciousness distinct from those of thought and will |
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Nerves of consciousness: how identified |
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Thought is in itself unconscious |
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Ideo-motor and voluntary actions: how distinguished |
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Consciousness is always a secondary phenomenon |
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The secondary current is not a continuation of the first |
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Compared to electric telegraph currents |
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Nerve-fibres are more than merely conductors |
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Consciousness and Thought |
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42 | (6) |
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Physiology is useless as a guide in any but elementary psychology, though all mind depends on nervous action |
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Feeling is wider than consciousness |
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Feelings of sensation and feelings of consciousness |
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Gradations of consciousness |
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It begins with the sense of the relation of sensations to each other |
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Attention to one particular sensation, or to one particular relation between sensations |
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Instance in geometrical study |
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We have no real consciousness of relations, only of related things |
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But we have knowledge of relations |
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Unconscious thought thus explained |
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Thought ceases to be conscious when it is of relations only, to the exclusion of the feelings between which the relations are |
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What is taken for consciousness of thought is often really consciousness of mental effort |
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48 | (8) |
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All actions tend to become habitual |
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Voluntary actions becoming habitual and consensual |
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Mental habit, or association of ideas |
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Impressions on consciousness are either sensory or ideal |
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Law of association stated |
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Instance of a man's face and his voice |
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Association by contiguity and by resemblance, both cases of the same principle |
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Explanation of association by resemblance: it is a case of association by contiguity |
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The power of cognising resemblance and difference is an ultimate fact |
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All association depends on habit |
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Forgetting, a case of loss of habits by disuse |
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Reappearance of memories supposed to be lost |
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Association enters into all mental acts |
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The mind cannot create, but can only combine |
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Are all mental facts referable to the law of mental habit alone? |
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Parallel question in biology |
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I believe in intelligence, in addition to the laws of habit |
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The question stated: Is intelligence an ultimate fact? |
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Why I have treated of association so briefly |
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The Grounds of the Moral Nature |
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56 | (9) |
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Moral is contrasted with intellectual |
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The root of the moral nature is in the sense of pleasure and pain |
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Pleasure and pain are inexplicable in themselves, but it may be possible to tell how they arise |
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Organic intelligence guides all organisms to do what is for their welfare |
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Sentient organisms are guided to their welfare by sensation |
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Reason for thinking the law must be general |
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Sexual, domestic, and social affections: their roots in the organic life |
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Great changes are injurious, slight ones beneficial: great changes are painful, slight ones agreeable |
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Application of this principle to beauty |
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Roots of emotions in the organic life |
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Emotions generated by association |
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Love of money not a primary feeling: may have become hereditary |
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Emotions have their seat in the nerves of consciousness |
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Germ of the moral nature in sensation |
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Origin of prudence: of unselfishness: of holiness |
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The sense of holiness is a case of intelligence |
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65 | (18) |
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The question is only verbal |
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Mind begins with sensation |
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Feelings of sensation and of consciousness, or bodily and mental feelings: their anatomical grounds: no fundamental distinction |
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Relation of thought and will to the insentient life |
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Analogy of mental to organic development |
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Inter-action of functions in mind |
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Development of thought, feeling, and will |
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Consensual and voluntary actions |
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Sensation and consciousness both inexplicable |
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Development of memory, from consciousness outlasting sensation |
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Necessity of this to thought |
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Hearing words and sentences |
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Memory is developed by the law of association |
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Recollection, or voluntary memory |
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Children have memory with little power of recollection |
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Only what has been attended to can be recollected |
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Continuance of impressions |
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Development of reasoning out of cognition of relations |
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Relations presupposed in association |
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Perception may have its seat in the sensory ganglia |
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Man's superiority in reasoning |
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Power of directing thought at will |
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Whately's view on language |
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Use of words in thought, due to the power of directing thought at will: whence also the power of abstraction |
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Voluntary action is always later developed than involuntary |
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Simple inference and abstract reasoning |
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Moral nature developed out of the sense of pleasure and pain |
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Emotions due to association |
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Love of beauty, of knowledge, and of holiness |
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Note:---There are unconscious sensation and thought |
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I believe there is no unconscious feeling |
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83 | (9) |
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Analogy between the organism and the mind in development by differentiation |
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Organic and mental integration |
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Analogy of organic and mental growth |
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The organism is constructed out of the food by the organic intelligence: so mind is constructed out of impressions of sense by the mental intelligence |
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Assimilation and waste both most rapid in youth |
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Parallel in receiving and forgetting mental impressions |
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Organic and mental growth both consist in excess of what is received over what is lost |
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Waste is a condition of organic life: so is forgetting of mental life |
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If we remembered everything, we could not think |
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Coalescence of residua by forgetting |
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What constitutes familiarity |
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Words must not only suggest their meaning: they must suggest nothing else |
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The first of these is secured by remembering, the second by forgetting |
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Formation of habits of action by the same law |
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Moral benefit of forgetting |
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Forgetting is a case of the laws of habit |
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92 | (25) |
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The muscular sense belongs to touch |
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The skin-nerves are nerves of both touch and heat; as are also the nerves of taste; and these sensations do not combine with each other: but two tastes or smells, when mixed, combine into a resultant of character intermediate between their constituents: so of mixed colours |
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Sounds do not so combine, but may be discriminated |
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Reason of this in the constitution of the nerves of hearing |
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The nerves of smell, sight, and hearing transmit no other sensation |
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Probable cause of sensations of different kinds being transmitted by the same nerve without combining |
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Only touch and sight give perception of space |
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Intellectual senses: touch, sight, and hearing |
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Reproduction in memory of impressions of sight and hearing |
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Cause of this in hereditary habit |
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These sensations do not combine |
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What touch cognises is resistance |
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Smell: its resemblance to taste |
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Sight, or the sense of colour |
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Only some luminous undulations produce the sense of light, and these excite various sensations of colour |
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Sight gives cognition of space |
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Semicircular canals give a sense of the direction of sounds |
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Hearing is unlike the other senses in the power of discriminating simultaneous sounds |
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Distribution of the nerves of touch, taste, smell, and sight, to sensitive surfaces |
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Distribution of the nerves of hearing different |
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Laws of sonorous vibrations |
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Period of vibration constant for the same string |
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Pitch of note constant for the same string |
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One string may set another vibrating |
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Action of sound on the nerves of the ear |
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Tone of sound: how produced |
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Why do the secondary vibrations, or overtones, combine with the fundamental into a resultant sound? |
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The combination or distinction may be due to habit |
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With practice overtones may be distinguished |
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Sight and hearing are the most intellectual, and the only aesthetic senses |
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Music produces a more intense feeling than visual beauty, because the ear loses no time in combining impressions |
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Note A: Nerves of Special Sensation |
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Opinion of distinct nerves for distinct colours |
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No special nerves of taste, nor of heat |
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The kind of sensation depends not on the nerves, nor on the ganglia, but on the organ of sense |
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Sensations of light due to pressure, and to an electric current |
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Note B: Colours and the Laws of their Combination |
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Difference between sensations of sight and of the other senses |
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Meaning of light and of radiance |
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Heating and chemical effects of radiance |
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Radiance consists of undulations |
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Rays of different wave-lengths are mixed together in the sunbeam |
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Their separation by the prism |
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The places of brightest light, of greatest heating power, and of greatest chemical power, do not coincide |
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Different rays have different colours |
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Difference of colour is a physiological fact, and analogous not to tone but to pitch in sound |
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The octave in sound and in colour |
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The series of colours in the spectrum is circular, and the opposite colours are complementaries |
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Whites produced by the combination of different pairs of complementaries are optically different |
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All colours except white are in the spectrum |
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Result of combining two colours not complementary is to form compound colours visibly like simple ones, but optically different |
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No distinction of primaries and secondaries in any physical sense, but there may be in a physiological sense |
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Further mathematical considerations |
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A colour and its octave are 360° apart on the circle |
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We might expect complementaries to be 180° apart |
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Discrepancy of observation and theory |
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All the rays are not equally bright to our eyes |
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Possibility of giving a formula for any tint |
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Scientific principles of harmonious colouring |
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117 | (16) |
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The problem, how sensations give rise to perceptions |
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Perception is more than cognition: it is the referring of sensations to their sources, the sources being present in time |
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A perfectly accurate definition is impossible |
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Perception is an inference |
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The same act may be the one or the other, according to circumstances |
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The subject has been complicated by extrancous questions |
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Perception and the cognition of space are distinct, but have been confounded |
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We cognise space before we perceive objects in it |
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Cognition of two sensations as separated in space |
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Cognition of space by the motion of a sensation |
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In these ways only superficial extension can be cognised |
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Cognitions of space and of time originate in parallel ways |
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Perception of objects external to the body is acquired by the motor sense |
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Sight, like touch, originally cognises only superficial extension |
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Perception by sight is an acquired power |
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Facts confirming these views |
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Perceptions due to both touch and sight |
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Special connexion of these two senses |
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Cognition of space in three dimensions is due to touch |
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Touch cognises linear magnitudes; sight cognises angular ones; and we think more easily of the former than of the latter |
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Words denoting the former are common: words denoting the latter are technical |
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A being with sight only would cognise only angular magnitude |
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Impressions of the two senses are identified in the mind as the result of habit |
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Difficulty about instinctive actions, as a duck running to the water when it leaves the egg |
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Explanation: these are cases of hereditary habit |
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|
Presumption that perception is not a simple act, from the multiplicity of senses |
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Difficulty of the subject from their multiplicity and their combination |
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Elements involved in perception enumerated |
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Assignment of a sensation to its source |
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Cognition of space-relations |
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Perception of objects in space |
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Combination of impressions of touch and sight |
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|
What is ``the external world'' external to? |
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It may be extra-mental, or only extra-organic |
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No organ of sense can perceive itself |
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Note:---Case of a being having knowledge of space from sight only |
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It would cognise only surface, and that the surface of a sphere |
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It would see straight lines as ares of great circles |
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Plane geometry would seem true to it only on infinitely small surfaces |
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|
The eye cannot see a plane surface or a straight line |
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|
Straight lines are seen as ares of great circles, which intersect when produced |
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|
Reid's ``Geometry of Visibles'' |
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|
The Relation of the Mind to Space and Time |
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|
133 | (10) |
|
Our knowledge of time is a primary cognition: we cognise time in cognising our sensations as successive |
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|
I believe space is cognised in a parallel way |
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Opinion that space is cognised by motion only |
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Similarity of space and time |
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Magnitude is more naturally expressed in space than in time, though number is expressed in time |
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Conclusion that the cognitions of the two have separate origin |
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Is the argument relevant? |
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Reason for thinking that it is |
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Larval and mature forms of these cognitions |
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Reason advanced for thinking that the cognition of space is from motion |
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Time is more inseparable from our thoughts than space |
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I believe this is not essential to all mind, but accidental to the human mind |
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Our consciousness begins with the succession of sensations |
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|
Possibility of consciousness being developed in space as well as time |
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|
Touch, sight, and hearing minister to mind |
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Of these only the first two give cognition of space |
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|
Hearing is the most closely connected with thought, because we think in words |
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|
Sensations of different senses may give cognition of time, but only those of the same sense can give it of space |
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Case of a mind developed out of the sense of sight only: its consciousness would be developed in both time and space |
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What is meant by thinking in space |
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Possibility of a consciousness independent of time |
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|
Instance of this being believed in |
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|
Time, Space, and Causation |
|
|
143 | (9) |
|
I hold the experience theory of our knowledge of space and time in preference to that of forms of thought |
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|
But the experience is inherited: so that the results of the experience of the race become forms of thought for the individual |
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The problem stated: How have space and time become forms of thought? |
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|
Is the fact ultimate, or a result of experience? |
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The ideal theory was consistent with the psychology of Kant's time |
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|
Further conclusion, that space and time are unreal, admitted by Kant |
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|
The experience theory is consistent with our psychology |
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Notion that idealism is favourable to faith |
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Kant was kept from scepticism by his faith, in spite of his philosophy |
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|
The experience theory makes our knowledge to be true, though limited, and is a possible basis of belief |
|
|
|
Causation, like space and time, is cognised directly, by coming within the sphere of consciousness |
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|
|
Causation is cognised in becoming conscious of mental action |
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|
|
There is no direct cognition of the will as the cause of muscular action |
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|
|
How we learn to identify physical and mental causation as cases of the same law |
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|
|
Imaginary case of a being with thought, but no motor powers |
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|
|
Where I agree with Mill, and where I differ |
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|
|
Belief in the infinity of space and time |
|
|
|
Difference between our belief of an eternal past and of an eternal future |
|
|
|
Note: The Philosophy of Kant |
|
|
|
The system of Kant's ``Pure Reason'' is idealism, identical with scepticism: that of his ``Practical Reason'' is faith |
|
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|
152 | (17) |
|
The most important question of biology is whether intelligence is a primary fact |
|
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I have argued the affirmative of organizing intelligence, and have now to argue it of mental |
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Difficulty of the latter question |
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There are no innate ideas |
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Thought begins from experience |
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Element of intelligence in all thought which is not a result of experience |
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Association will account for conceptions, but not for beliefs |
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Belief in the constancy of the order of things |
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I think this is no explanation |
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Belief is subject to the laws of habit, but habit cannot produce belief |
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Objection from the inconstancy of the weather answered |
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The constancy of the order of things is not certain, but only probable: but it is certain to be constant unless interrupted |
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In what sense the law of causation is self-evident |
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This confidence is presupposed in action, and in desire and fear |
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The only principles which enter into all reasoning are those of logic |
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These are known by intelligence without habit |
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They are involved in perception |
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The logical principle of identity |
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Beliefs not the results of thought, but implied in thought |
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Belief in the veracity of memory is an ultimate fact, and belongs to intelligence |
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Resemblance of my theory to idealism, and its difference |
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I believe the laws of thought are so because they are laws of nature |
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The question, should we expect to find nature constant if it were not so, is irrational |
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Intelligence is co-extensive with life, and not always conscious |
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Belief implies intelligence, as nutrition and growth imply organizing power |
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Intelligence dominates most in the highest life, both organic and mental |
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Peculiarities of the mind of man |
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Power of directing thought at will |
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Use of the personal pronouns |
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Intelligence needed for this |
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Note A: Bain's Theory of Belief |
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His theory of belief is no explanation |
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Bain on the belief in the veracity of memory |
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Note B: Mill's Inductive Logic |
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Inductive and deductive reasoning |
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Reasoning from particulars to particulars |
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Question of the origin of the belief in the constancy of nature |
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Habit and Variation in History |
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169 | (15) |
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The science of life and mind has been fully systematized, as have also been logic, mathematics, physics, and chemistry: but the sciences of the results of man's mental activity have not yet been systematized, including those of language, art, and society |
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The laws of these subjects depend on the laws of mind, but the converse is not true |
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In language are an intelligent and a habitual element |
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Comparative grammar is as yet only comparative etymology, but comparative syntax is to be hoped for |
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As life constructs the organism, so thought constructs language |
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Variability of language, both in the forms of words and their meanings, comparable to variations in the forms of organs, and in their functions |
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Rudimentary organs comparable to silent letters |
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Morphological correlations, independent of function, comparable to inflections without meaning |
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Morphology and the science of language are both comparative sciences, and sciences of progressive change |
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The embryology of language is yet unknown |
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Historical science of the fine arts, involving the same principles as organic morphology and language |
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