Black Letter Outline on Intellectual Property

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ISBN: 9780314147387 | 0314147381
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 4/13/2006

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This reference provides an overview of unfair trade practices, including the common-law and statutory basis of unfair competition, antitrust, consumer protection, regulated industries, and labor. Includes discussion of intellectual property, which is also composed of statutory and common-law elements. The text is a helpful resource for students studying business or commercial torts, intellectual property, trade regulation, unfair competition and unfair trade practices, and related subjects. Includes a thorough review of key topics and study aids.

Capsule Summary

(54)

Perspective

(11)

I. BASIC THEMES OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW

Scope Of Intellectual Property

(2)

(1)

Patent Law

(1)

Trademark Law

(1)

The Misappropriation Doctrine

(1)

The Right of Publicity

(1)

Trade Secret Law

(1)

False Advertising Law

(1)

Sources Of Intellectual Property Law

(4)

The U.S. Constitution

(1)

Federal Statutory and Administrative Law

(1)

Federal Exclusivity

(1)

Administrative Agencies

(1)

Other Federal Statutes

(1)

State Common Law and Statutes

(1)

International Law

(2)

Major Treaties

(1)

Other Treaties

(1)

WIPO

(1)

Theoretical Underpinnings

(5)

Intellectual Property Law Protects Intangibles

(1)

First Sale Exhaustion

(1)

IP Rights Transferable

(1)

Intellectual Property as an Incentive

(2)

Non-Excludable

(1)

Non-Rivalrous

(1)

Economic Implications

(1)

Legal Implications---The Incentive Theory

(1)

Intellectual Property as Just Deserts

(1)

Intellectual Property Law and the Public Domain

(1)

Is Intellectual Property Really ``Property''?

(1)

Review Questions

(3)

II. TRADEMARKS:

The Rationale for Protecting Trademarks

(2)

Justifications for Broad Protection

(1)

Incentives for Investment and Creativity

(1)

Fairness to the Consuming Public

(1)

Commercial Morality

(1)

Disadvantages of Excessive Trademark Protection

(1)

Barriers to Entry

(1)

Encouragement of Wasteful Expenditures

(1)

Increased Problems of Commercial Communication

(1)

The Dual System of Trademark Protection

(3)

Common Features of Both Schemes

(1)

Obtaining Trademark Rights

(1)

Choosing a Proper Mark

(1)

Trademark Rights Specific To Limited Category of Goods

(1)

Permissible and Impermissible Uses of Another's Mark

(1)

Major Differences Between the Two Schemes

(2)

Reserving a Trademark

(1)

Obtaining Trademark Rights

(1)

Choosing a Proper Mark

(1)

Geographic Extent of Protection

(1)

Terminological Differences in the Two Schemes

(1)

Obtaining Trademark Rights

(10)

Affixation and its Substitutes

(1)

Justification for Older, Strict Affixation Requirement

(1)

Justification for Modern Relaxation of Affixation Requirement

(1)

Lanham Act Approach

(1)

The Requirement of Use

(4)

Type of Use Required

(1)

Amount of Use Required

(1)

Priority of Use Determines Trademark Rights

(1)

Constructive Use Under the Lanham Act

(1)

Constructive Use based on Foreign Trademark Applications

(1)

The Mechanics of Federal Registration

(5)

Types of Marks

(1)

Trademarks

(1)

Service Marks

(1)

Certification Marks

(1)

Collective Marks

(1)

Application for Registration Based on Actual Use

(1)

Application for Registration Based on Intent to Use

(1)

Opposition Proceedings

(1)

Cancellation Proceedings

(1)

Advantages of Registration

(1)

The Registration Symbol

(1)

Constructive Notice

(1)

Incontestability

(1)

Prohibition Against Infringing Imports

(1)

Distinctiveness and Trademark Validity

(14)

Inherently Distinctive Marks

(2)

Fanciful Marks

(1)

Arbitrary Marks

(1)

Suggestive Marks

(1)

Marks That May Become Distinctive

(9)

Descriptive Terms

(1)

General Principles

(1)

Terminology

(1)

Proof of Secondary Meaning

(1)

The Suggestive/Descriptive Distinction

(1)

Self-Laudatory Marks Are Descriptive

(1)

Deceptively Misdescriptive Terms

(1)

Geographic Terms

100

(1)

Geographically Descriptive Terms

100

(1)

Geographically Deceptively Misdescriptive Terms

101

(1)

Special Rule for Wines and Spirits

102

(1)

Geographic Terms Can Be Arbitrary

102

(1)

Geographic Terms Can Be Generic

103

(1)

Surnames

103

(1)

General Principles

103

(1)

Identifying Surnames

104

(1)

Right to Use One's Own Name

104

(1)

Slogans

105

(1)

Words Incapable of Distinctiveness---Generic Terms

106

(3)

Genericness Ab Initio

106

(1)

The Problem

106

(1)

A Possible Solution

107

(1)

Loss of Distinctiveness

107

(1)

Avoiding Genericness

108

(1)

Sound and Smell

109

(1)

Trade Dress

109

(10)

Distinctiveness Requirement for Trade Dress

109

(3)

Inherent Distinctiveness of Trade Dress

110

(1)

The Two Pesos Case

110

(1)

No Clear Test of Inherent Distinctiveness

110

(1)

Product Design or Configuration is Never Inherently Distinctive

111

(1)

Consumers Rarely Perceive Configuration As Source Indicator

111

(1)

Configuration Always Requires Secondary Meaning

111

(1)

Rationale of Wal-Mart Rule

112

(1)

Distinguishing Product Design From Product Packaging

112

(1)

Non-Functionality Requirement for Trade Dress

112

(6)

Utilitarian Functionality

112

(1)

Proof of Utilitarian Functionality

113

(1)

Expired Utility Patents

113

(1)

Feasible Alternative Designs

113

(1)

Advertising

114

(1)

Direct Evidence of Costs and Advantages

114

(1)

Combination of Elements

115

(1)

Burden of Proof

115

(1)

Aesthetic Functionality

115

(2)

Trade Dress Protection Conflict With Patent Policy

117

(1)

Nature of the Conflict

117

(1)

Sears--Compco: Sweeping Pre-emption

117

(1)

The Retreat from Sears--Compco

117

(1)

State Law Trade Dress Protection Now of Reduced Practical Importance

118

(1)

Special Issues Involving Colors

118

(1)

Color Combinations

118

(1)

Protection for a Single Color

118

(1)

Buildings

119

(1)

Other Problematic Trademarks

119

(3)

Terms Similar to Those Previously Used by Another

119

(1)

Deceptive Marks

120

(1)

Immoral or Scandalous Marks

121

(1)

Disparaging Marks

121

(1)

Other Impermissible Marks

122

(1)

Infringement and Counterfeiting

122

(20)

The Concept of Trademark Infringement

122

(8)

Available Causes of Action

122

(1)

Passing Off

122

(1)

Likelihood of Confusion

123

(1)

Rationale of Likelihood of Confusion Test

123

(1)

Harms From Likelihood of Confusion

123

(1)

Diversion of Sales

124

(1)

Limitation of Expansion

124

(1)

Harm to Reputation

124

(1)

Factors Probative of Likelihood of Confusion

124

(1)

Similarity of the Marks Themselves

125

(1)

Sound

125

(1)

Sight

125

(1)

Meaning

126

(1)

Strength of Plaintiff's Mark

126

(1)

Similarity of Trade Dress

126

(1)

Consumer Surveys

126

(1)

Consumer Sophistication

126

(1)

Price of the Goods

127

(1)

Evidence of Actual Instance of Confusion

127

(1)

Special Confusion Situations

127

(1)

Post-Sale Confusion

127

(1)

Initial Interest Confusion

128

(1)

Intent

129

(1)

Parody

129

(1)

Non--Competing Goods

130

(4)

Related Goods

131

(1)

Decorative Use of Trademarks on Promotional Goods

132

(1)

Confusing Terminology

132

(1)

Judicial Response to the Problem

133

(1)

Geographically Remote Users

134

(2)

Common Law

134

(1)

Good Faith

134

(1)

Remoteness

134

(1)

Lanham Act

135

(1)

Junior Use Pre-dating Registration

136

(1)

Junior User Registers First

136

(1)

Reverse Likelihood of Confusion

136

(2)

Difference From ``Forward'' Confusion

136

(1)

Nature of the Harm

137

(1)

Reverse Confusion is Actionable

137

(1)

Reverse Passing Off

138

(1)

Difference from Reverse Confusion

138

(1)

Reverse Passing Off Violates Lanham Act

138

(1)

Copyrighted Materials and the Dastar Case

139

(1)

Secondary Liability for Trademark Infringement

139

(1)

Contributory Infingement

139

(1)

Vicarious Infringement

140

(1)

Trademark Counterfeiting

140

(1)

Definition

140

(1)

Civil Penalties

141

(1)

Criminal Penalties

141

(1)

Other Forbidden Practices

141

(1)

Dilution

142

(7)

Historical Development

142

(1)

Fame Requirement

142

(2)

Factors Relevant to Fame of Mark

142

(1)

Niche Fame

143

(1)

Second Circuit Also Requires Inherent Distinctiveness

144

(1)

Dilution by Blurring

144

(4)

Blurring is Distinct From Confusion

145

(1)

Actual---Not Likely---Dilution Required

146

(1)

Proof of Blurring

146

(1)

Similarity of the Marks

146

(1)

Multi-Factor Tests

147

(1)

Survey Evidence

148

(1)

Dilution by Tarnishment

148

(1)

Affirmative Defenses and Remedies

149

(8)

First Sale Exhaustion and Resale of the Genuine Goods

149

(3)

Retailers and Dealers

149

(1)

Rebottled and Repackaged Goods

149

(1)

Repaired or Reconditioned Goods

150

(1)

Imported Goods

150

(1)

No Affiliation Between U.S. and Foreign Mark Owner

150

(1)

U.S. and Foreign Mark Owners Under Common Ownership or Control

151

(1)

Referential or Nominative Uses

152

(1)

General Test for Nominative Fair Use

152

(1)

Specific Types of Permissible Referential Use

153

(1)

Comparative Advertising

153

(1)

Dealerships, Service Outlets and Replacement Parts

153

(1)

Past Affiliation

153

(1)

Descriptive Fair Use

153

(2)

Nature of the Defense

153

(1)

Fair Use and Likelihood of Confusion

154

(1)

Trademark Abandonment

155

(1)

Abandonment Through Non-use

155

(1)

Failure to Supervise Licensees

155

(1)

Special Defenses to Dilution Claims

155

(1)

Remedies

155

(2)

Injunctive Relief

155

(1)

Monetary Relief

156

(1)

Infringement Cases

156

(1)

Dilution Cases

156

(1)

Destruction of Infringing Articles

156

(1)

Trademarks in Cyberspace

157

(4)

Domain Name Disputes

157

(3)

Dilution Remedies for Cybersquatting

157

(1)

The Anti-Cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act

157

(1)

Basic Provisions

157

(1)

Gripe Sites

158

(1)

In Rem Proceedings

159

(1)

Remedies

159

(1)

The Uniform Dispute Resolution Procedure

159

(1)

Judicial Review of UDRP Determinations

160

(1)

Reverse Domain Name Hijacking

160

(1)

Use of Another's Mark in Hidden Code

160

(1)

Use of Another's Mark as a Keyword

161

(1)

Review Questions

161

(5)

III. COPYRIGHT:

The Standards of Copyrightability

166

(7)

The Constitutional Basis

166

(1)

The Statutory Subject Matter of Copyright

167

(1)

Originality

167

(4)

Originality Means Independently Created

167

(1)

Works Incorporating Pre-Existing Material

167

(1)

Parallel Independent Creation

168

(1)

Originality Means Modestly Creative

168

(1)

Single Words or Short Phrases

169

(1)

Photographs and Movies

170

(1)

Maps

170

(1)

Art Reproductions

170

(1)

Fixation

171

(1)

Live Transmissions

171

(1)

Video Games

172

(1)

Special Protection for Unfixed Musical Performances

172

(1)

Only Expressions, Not Ideas

172

(1)

The Merger Doctrine

173

(1)

Copyrightable Subject Matter

173

(12)

Literary Works

174

(1)

Fictional Characters

174

(1)

Computer Programs

174

(1)

Pictorial, Graphic and Sculptural Works

175

(4)

General Definition

175

(1)

Utilitarian Objects Not Protectable

176

(1)

Policy Basis For Denial of Protection

176

(1)

Definition of Utilitarian Objects

176

(1)

Aesthetic Features of Utilitarian Objects Protectable if Separable

177

(1)

Physically Separable Aesthetic Features

177

(1)

Conceptually Separable Aesthetic Features

177

(1)

Aesthetic Objects Incorporated Into Useful Objects

178

(1)

Design Protection Legislation

179

(1)

Musical Works

179

(1)

Sound Recordings

179

(1)

General Definition

179

(1)

Distinction Between Sound Recordings and Musical Compositions

180

(1)

Architectural Works

180

(1)

Dramatic, Choreographic and Audiovisual Works

181

(1)

Compilations

181

(1)

Originality in Compilations

181

(1)

Data Base Protection Legislation

182

(1)

Derivative Works

182

(1)

Originality in Derivative Works

182

(1)

Scope of Copyright in Derivative Works

183

(1)

Non-Copyrightable Subject Matter

183

(2)

Government Works

184

(1)

Works of the Federal Government

184

(1)

State and Local Government Works

184

(1)

Blank Forms

184

(1)

Titles, Trademarks, Commercial Prints and Labels

184

(1)

Typefaces

185

(1)

Non--U.S. Works

185

(1)

Unpublished Works

185

(1)

Published Works

185

(1)

Publication

185

(3)

Historical Significance of Publication

186

(1)

Common Law Copyright for Unpublished Works

186

(1)

Pre--1976 Definition of Publication

186

(1)

Limited Publication

186

(1)

Performances and Displays

187

(1)

General Publication

187

(1)

Current Significance of Publication

187

(1)

Common Law Copyright Abolished

187

(1)

Current Definition of Publication

188

(1)

Consequences of Publication

188

(1)

188

(5)

Notice

188

(2)

Form of Notice

188

(1)

Works Published Before 1978

189

(1)

Works Published Between 1978 and 1989

189

(1)

Only Few Copies Lacked Notice

189

(1)

Omission Due to Publisher's Error

189

(1)

Cure Through Registration and Belated Addition of Notice

189

(1)

Works Published After 1989

190

(1)

Reasons for Including Notice Post--1989

190

(1)

Registration

190

(3)

Registration Optional

191

(1)

Evidentiary Effect of Registration

191

(1)

Registration Required for Infringement Suit

191

(1)

Registration Required for Certain Remedies

191

(1)

Registration Procedure

192

(1)

Pre-registration

192

(1)

The Problem

192

(1)

Legislative Solution

192

(1)

Deposit

193

(1)

Ownership

193

(2)

In General

193

(1)

Joint Works

193

(1)

Works Made for Hire

194

(1)

Work Prepared By Employee

194

(1)

Work Prepared By Independent Contractor Under Commission

194

(1)

Significance of Work Made for Hire Status

195

(1)

Transfers and Licensing

195

(5)

Assignments and Licenses

195

(1)

196

(1)

Statute of Frauds and Recordation

196

(1)

Termination of Transfers

196

(2)

Termination of Grants Made After January 1, 1978

197

(1)

Termination of Grants Made Before 1978

197

(1)

Compulsory Licenses

198

(2)

Phonorecord Reproduction of Musical Compositions

199

(1)

Cable Television License for Secondary Transmissions

199

(1)

Noncommercial Broadcasters

200

(1)

Traditional Rights of a Copyright Owner

200

(9)

The Reproduction Right

200

(3)

Scope of the Right

200

(1)

Illustrative Limitations on the Reproduction Right

201

(1)

Library Copying

201

(1)

Single Copies of Computer Software

201

(1)

Non-commercial Duplication of Musical Recordings

202

(1)

Imitative Sound Recordings

202

(1)

The Adaptation Right

203

(1)

Scope of the Right

203

(1)

Limitations on the Right

203

(1)

Photographs of Architectural Works

203

(1)

Modifications of Architectural Works

203

(1)

Family Entertainment Act

203

(1)

The Distribution Right

204

(1)

Scope of the Right

204

(1)

Limitations on the Rights

204

(1)

First Sale Exhaustion

204

(1)

Rental of Sound Recordings and Software Forbidden

204

(1)

The Performance Right

204

(4)

Scope of Right

204

(1)

Covered Works

205

(1)

Blanket Licensing

206

(1)

Illustrative Limitations on the Right

206

(1)

Performances by Teachers

206

(1)

Performances at Religious Services

207

(1)

Non--Profit Performances

207

(1)

The Homestyle Exception

207

(1)

Other Limitations on the Performance Right

208

(1)

The Display Right

208

(1)

Scope of the Right

208

(1)

Limitations on the Right

208

(1)

Special Rights of Copyright Owners

209

(3)

Moral Rights

209

(1)

Digital Performance Rights for Sound Recordings

209

(1)

Anti--Circumvention Protection

210

(2)

Device Prohibitions

210

(1)

Conduct Prohibition

210

(1)

Exceptions

211

(1)

Anti--Circumvention Rules Controversial

211

(1)

Protection of Copyright Management Information

212

(1)

Definition of Copyright Management Information

212

(1)

Substantive Prohibitions

212

(1)

Duration of Copyright

212

(4)

Current Rule

212

(1)

Previous Durational Rules

213

(3)

Original Durational Rules Under 1976 Act

213

(1)

Durational Rules Under 1909 Act

213

(1)

Transitional Rules

214

(1)

Works Published Between 1950 and 1977

214

(1)

Works Published Before 1950

214

(1)

Works Created Before 1978 and Never Published

215

(1)

Infringement

216

(6)

Access

216

(1)

Substantial Similarity

216

(4)

Similarity Must Relate to Protected Expression

216

(1)

Similarity Judged From Perspective of Ordinary Observer

217

(1)

Similarity Must Be Non-Trivial

218

(1)

Types of Substantial Similarity

218

(1)

Comprehensive Nonliteral Similarity

218

(1)

Fragmented Literal Similarity

219

(1)

Common Errors

219

(1)

Intent

220

(1)

Secondary Liability

220

(2)

Contributory Liability

220

(1)

The Grokster Decision

221

(1)

Safe Harbors for Internet Service Providers

221

(1)

Vicarious Liability

222

(1)

Fair Use

222

(3)

Relevant Factors

222

(2)

Purpose and Character of Use

222

(1)

Nature of the Copyrighted Work

223

(1)

Amount and Substantiality of Portion Used

223

(1)

Effect on Market for Copyrighted Work

223

(1)

Fair Use of Unpublished Works

224

(1)

Parody as Fair Use

225

(1)

Remedies

225

(1)

Injunctive Relief

225

(1)

Monetary Relief

225

(1)

Impoundment

226

(1)

Criminal Sanctions

226

(1)

Review Questions

226

(6)

IV. MISAPPROPRIATION & THE RIGHT OF PUBLICITY

Protection for Business Schemes

232

(3)

Elements of a Protectable Business Scheme

232

(2)

Concreteness

232

(1)

Novelty

233

(1)

Usefulness

234

(1)

Theories for Imposing Obligation to Pay for Ideas

234

(1)

Contractual Theories

234

(1)

Quasi-Contract

234

(1)

Confidential Relationship

234

(1)

Property

235

(1)

Corporate Practice With Unsolicited Ideas

235

(1)

The Common Law Misappropriation Tort

235

(3)

Historical Foundations: The INS Case

235

(1)

Facts

236

(1)

Legal Status of INS Case

236

(1)

Elements of the Tort

236

(1)

Traditional Elements

236

(1)

Requirement that Parties Be Competitors

237

(1)

Illustrative Applications of the Doctrine

237

(1)

Limited Acceptance and Disapproval of the Tort

238

(1)

The Right of Publicity

238

(7)

Theoretical Issues and the Right of Publicity

238

(2)

Elements for Publicity Claims

238

(1)

Relationship of Privacy and Publicity

239

(1)

Overview of Privacy Principles

239

(1)

Some Privacy and Publicity Claims Overlap

239

(1)

Some Privacy Claims Distinct From Publicity

239

(1)

Relationship of Trademark and Publicity

239

(1)

Who May Assert a ``Publicity'' Claim

240

(1)

Entertainers and Athletes

240

(1)

Other Famous Individuals

240

(1)

Non-famous Individuals

241

(1)

Personal Aspects Protected by the Right of Publicity

241

(1)

First Amendment Limits on Celebrity's Rights

242

(2)

The Zacchini Case

242

(1)

Post-Zacchini Tests

243

(1)

Balancing Test

243

(1)

Transformative Use Test

243

(1)

Predominant Use Test

243

(1)

Parodies and the Right of Publicity

244

(1)

Descendability

244

(1)

Narrow View---Rights Terminate on Death

244

(1)

Intermediate View---Descendible If Exploited

245

(1)

Broad View---Descendible Regardless of Exploitation

245

(1)

Duration Of Rights After Death

245

(1)

Pre-Emption Problems

245

(5)

Section 301 of the Copyright Statute

246

(1)

Protection of Subject Matter Not Within Copyright

246

(1)

Granting Rights Not Provided by Copyright

246

(1)

Practical Effect of Section 301

247

(1)

Pre-Emption of Misappropriation Claims

247

(2)

Encroaching on the Expanding Subject Matter of Copyright

248

(1)

Encroaching on Congress's View of the Public Domain

248

(1)

Pre-Emption of Publicity Claims

249

(1)

Baltimore Orioles Case

249

(1)

Majority View Rejects Pre-emption

249

(1)

Pre-Emption Analysis Before the 1976 Statute

250

(1)

1964 to 1972

250

(1)

The Goldstein Opinion

250

(1)

Review Questions

250

(6)

V. PATENTS:

Types of Patents

256

(1)

Utility Patents

256

(1)

Design Patents

257

(1)

Plant Patents

257

(1)

Patent-Eligible Subject Matter

257

(8)

Machines

258

(1)

Compositions of Matter

258

(1)

Manufactures

258

(1)

Processes

258

(1)

Recent Expansions in Patent-Eligible Subject Matter

258

(4)

Computer Programs

258

(1)

Initial Skepticism

259

(1)

The Diehr Case

259

(1)

Further Relaxation of Tests for Software Inventions

259

(1)

Business Methods

260

(1)

Traditionally Held Unpatentable

260

(1)

The State Street Bank Case

260

(1)

Business Methods Need Not Be Technological

260

(1)

Genetically--Engineered Living Organisms

261

(1)

The Chakrabarty Case

261

(1)

Examples and Outer Limits

261

(1)

Method of Medical Treatment

262

(1)

Historical Background

262

(1)

Patentable, but No Remedies

262

(1)

Material that is not Patent--Eligible

262

(3)

Laws of Nature and Natural Phenomena

263

(1)

Products of Nature

263

(1)

New Uses of Old Products

264

(1)

Printed Material

264

(1)

Atomic Weaponry

264

(1)

The Requirement of Novelty

265

(8)

Note on Terminology

265

(1)

Prior Patent, Publication, Use or Knowledge by Another---§ 102(a)

266

(4)

The Applicant's Date of Invention

266

(1)

Single Source with an Enabling Disclosure

267

(1)

Prior Patents or Printed Publications

268

(1)

Prior Domestic Use or Knowledge

268

(1)

Only Domestic Use Relevant

269

(1)

Prior Use Must Have Been ``Public''

269

(1)

Unappreciated Results Not Prior Art

270

(1)

Prior Invention by Another---§ 102(g)

270

(2)

Prior Invention by Another As Prior Art

271

(1)

Priority Contests Between Competing Patent Applicants

272

(1)

Unclaimed Disclosures in U.S. Patents and Applications---§ 102(e)

272

(1)

Derivation From Another---§ 102(f)

273

(1)

Statutory Bar

273

(8)

Critical Date and Grace Period

274

(1)

Patent or Printed Publication Before Critical Date---§ 102(b)

274

(1)

Definition of Printed Publication

274

(1)

Applicant's own Publications Can Trigger Bar

275

(1)

Public Use or On-Sale Before Critical Date---§ 102(b)

275

(4)

Applicant's Own Use Can Trigger Bar

276

(1)

The Concept of Public Use

276

(1)

Secret Use By the Patent Applicant is Public Use

276

(1)

Experimental Use By the Patent Applicant is Not Public Use

277

(1)

Secret Use By Third Parties is Not Public Use

278

(1)

The Concept of ``On Sale''

278

(1)

Delayed U.S. Filing---§ 102(d)

279

(1)

Abandonment---§ 102(c)

280

(1)

Differences Between Statutory Bar and Lack of Novelty

280

(1)

The Requirement of Non--Obviousness

281

(5)

Difference Between Non--Obviousness and Novelty

281

(1)

History of Non--Obviousness Requirement

281

(1)

The Flash of Genius Requirement

282

(1)

Section 103

282

(1)

The Graham Case

282

(1)

Prior Art for Obviousness

282

(2)

Sources of the Prior Art

282

(1)

Topical Scope of Prior Art: Analogous Prior Art

283

(1)

References May Be Combined

283

(1)

Tests for Determining ``Obviousness''

284

(2)

Obvious to Try

284

(1)

Combinations of Known Elements

285

(1)

Secondary Considerations

285

(1)

Long Felt Need

285

(1)

Commercial Success

285

(1)

Professional Approval

285

(1)

Widespread Licensing

286

(1)

Prior Failure of Others

286

(1)

Unexpected Results

286

(1)

The Requirement of Utility

286

(1)

Inventions With No Known Purpose

286

(1)

Inoperative Inventions

287

(1)

Immoral or Illegal Inventions

287

(1)

The Patent Instrument and the Patenting Process

287

(7)

Drafting the Patent

287

(5)

Specification

287

(1)

Enabling Disclosure

288

(1)

Written Description Requirement

288

(1)

Best Mode

289

(1)

Claims

289

(1)

Preamble

289

(1)

Transition

290

(1)

Special Claim Formats

290

(1)

Dependent Claims

291

(1)

Means Plus Function Claims

291

(1)

Product By Process Claims

291

(1)

Jepsom Claims

292

(1)

Markush Claims

292

(1)

Patent Examination

292

(2)

Procedure

292

(1)

Inequitable Conduct and the Duty of Candor

293

(1)

Confidentiality and 18 Month Publication

294

(1)

Reissue

294

(1)

Reexamination

294

(1)

Patent Infringement

294

(12)

Duration of Patents

295

(1)

Claim Construction

295

(2)

Markman Hearings

295

(1)

Relevant Sources for Claim Interpretation

296

(1)

Intrinsic Evidence Preferred

296

(1)

Dictionaries and Encyclopedias

297

(1)

Direct Infringement

297

(5)

Making, Using or Selling

297

(1)

Patentee May Not Be Able to Practice Invention

298

(1)

Blocking Patents

298

(1)

Importation of Items Made By Patented Process

298

(1)

Doctrine of Equivalents

298

(1)

General Rule

299

(1)

Scope of Equivalents

299

(1)

All Elements Rule

300

(1)

Prosecution History Estoppel

300

(1)

Burden of Proof

301

(1)

Flexible Bar

301

(1)

Contributory Infringement

302

(1)

Active Inducement

302

(1)

Sale of Non-Staples by Third Parties

302

(1)

Sale of Non-Staples by Patentee

302

(1)

Defenses and Exemptions From Liability

303

(3)

Experimental Use

303

(1)

Repair and Reconstruction

304

(1)

Exhaustion After First Sale

304

(1)

First Inventor Defense

304

(1)

Reverse Doctrine of Equivalents

305

(1)

Governmental Liability

305

(1)

Remedies

306

(1)

Review Questions

306

(6)

VI. TRADE SECRETS

Material Constituting Trade Secrets

312

(3)

Uniform Act Definition

312

(1)

Minimal Novelty and Utility Required

312

(1)

Requisite Degree of Secrecy

313

(1)

Actions Rather Than Intentions Control

313

(1)

Typical Precautions

313

(1)

Matters Held to be Trade Secrets

314

(1)

Appropriation by Parties With Legitimate Access

315

(1)

Explicit Duty to Maintain Secrecy

315

(1)

Parties On Whom Duty Is Typically Imposed

315

(1)

Covenants Not to Compete

315

(1)

Implied Duty to Maintain Secrecy

316

(1)

Trade Secret Theft by Strangers

316

(2)

Behavior Constituting Improper Means

317

(1)

Reverse Engineering is not Improper Means

317

(1)

Innocent Use of Stolen Secrets

318

(1)

Trade Secret Disclosure by Government

318

(2)

Freedom of Information Act

319

(1)

Reverse FOIA Suits

319

(1)

Disclosure During Litigation

319

(1)

Federal Trade Secret Act

319

(1)

Economic Espionage Act

320

(1)

Definition of Trade Secret Under EEA

320

(1)

Substantive Prohibitions

320

(1)

Remedies for Trade Secret Theft

321

(2)

Damages

321

(1)

Injunctions

321

(1)

Subject Matter Still Secret

321

(1)

Subject Matter In Public Domain

321

(1)

Perpetual Injunction

321

(1)

No Injunction

322

(1)

Head Start Injunction

322

(1)

Miscellaneous Criminal Remedies

322

(1)

Pre--Emption Problems

323

(1)

Conflict With the Patent Policy of Free Copiability

323

(1)

Conflict With the Patent Policy of Promoting Disclosure

324

(1)

Trade Secrets and Other IP Concepts

324

(1)

Trade Secret and Patent

324

(1)

Trade Secret and Idea Appropriation

324

(1)

Trade Secret and Copyright

325

(1)

Review Questions

325

(5)

VII. COMPETITOR REMEDIES FOR FALSE ADVERTISING AND DISPARAGEMENT

Common Law Remedies for False Advertising

330

(3)

No Remedy in Usual Case

331

(1)

Sole Source May Recover

331

(1)

Modern Cases

332

(1)

State Statutory Remedies for False Advertising

333

(1)

Statutory Provisions are Widespread

333

(1)

No ``Sole Source'' Limitation

333

(1)

Types of Falsehoods Prohibited

333

(1)

Federal Lanham Act Remedies for False Advertising

334

(5)

Historical Background

334

(2)

Early Cases

334

(1)

1954 to 1989

335

(1)

1989 Amendments

335

(1)

Standing: Who May Invoke Section 43

336

(1)

Standing to Seek Injunctive Relief

336

(1)

Standing to Seek Money Damages or Profits

336

(1)

Substantive Elements of 43(a) Claim

337

(2)

What Constitutes a False Description or Representation

338

(1)

Actual Deception or Tendency to Deceive

338

(1)

Material Falsehood Likely to Influence Purchasing Decisions

338

(1)

Common Law Remedies for Disparagement

339

(3)

Disparagement Defined

339

(1)

Elements of Disparagement

340

(1)

First Amendment Limits on Disparagement Actions

340

(2)

Competitor Disparagement

340

(1)

Consumer or Media Disparagement

341

(1)

State Statutory Remedies for Disparagement

342

(1)

Federal Lanham Act Remedies for Disparagement

342

(3)

Explicit Disparagement

342

(1)

No Remedy Under Original Version of Section 43(a)

342

(1)

Cause of Action Available After 1989

343

(1)

Other Reputational Harms Also Actionable Under § 43(a)

343

(2)

Altering Creative or Artistic Works

343

(1)

Obscene Parody

344

(1)

Review Questions

345

(5)

VIII. FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION REGULATION OF UNFAIR AND DECEPTIVE PRACTICES

Overview of F.T.C. Procedure

350

(2)

Identifying Illegal Behavior

350

(1)

Negotiated Disposition

351

(1)

Formal Adjudication

351

(1)

At the Agency Level

351

(1)

Judicial Review

351

(1)

Litigation in District Courts

351

(1)

Rulemaking

352

(1)

The Meaning of Unfairness

352

(3)

Historical Development

352

(1)

1914 to 1938

352

(1)

The Wheeler-Lea Amendment

352

(1)

1938 to 1964

352

(1)

The Sperry & Hutchinson Case

353

(1)

Current Doctrine

353

(1)

Substantial Injury

353

(1)

Unmitigated Injury

354

(1)

Unavoidable Injury

354

(1)

The Role of Public Policy

354

(1)

Illustrative Unfair Practices

354

(1)

The Meaning of Deception

355

(9)

Original Definition

355

(1)

Protection for the Gullible

355

(1)

Limits on the Definition

356

(1)

The Revised Standard of Deceptiveness

356

(2)

Differences From Traditional Standard

357

(1)

No Consumer Injury or Intent Required

357

(1)

Practical Consequences of Change

358

(1)

Factors Influencing Commission Case Selection

358

(1)

Price and Frequency of Purchase

358

(1)

Deterrence

359

(1)

Risk of Lessening Information

359

(1)

Physical Injury or Foregone Treatment

359

(1)

Applications of the Deception Standard

359

(2)

Omissions

360

(1)

Claims of Uniqueness

360

(1)

Type of Business

360

(1)

Testimonials

361

(1)

Television Advertising

361

(1)

Deceptive Pricing and Sales Practices

361

(2)

Misrepresentation of Price or ``Free'' Products

362

(1)

Misrepresentation of Warranty Terms

362

(1)

Bait and Switch

362

(1)

Door-to-Door Sales

363

(1)

Mail Order Sales

363

(1)

Disparagement

363

(1)

Advertising Substantiation

364

(2)

Development of the Doctrine

364

(1)

The Deception Argument

364

(1)

The Unfairness Argument

364

(1)

What Constitutes Substantiation

365

(1)

General Rule

365

(1)

Specific Reference to Substantiation in Ad

365

(1)

Basis Must Exist Prior to Disseminating Ad

365

(1)

Effect of Substantiation Doctrine on Burden of Proof

365

(1)

Remedies for Violations of Section 5

366

(5)

Cease and Desist Orders

366

(1)

Orders Requiring Affirmative Statements

366

(1)

Corrective Advertising

367

(1)

Conditions Where Appropriate

367

(1)

Duration of Corrective Advertising Requirement

367

(1)

Differences Between Affirmative Disclosure and Corrective Advertising Orders

368

(1)

First Amendment Limits on Commission Orders

368

(1)

Restitution

368

(2)

Restitution Provisions in Cease and Desist Orders

368

(1)

Restitution Sought in Civil Suits

369

(1)

Section 19

369

(1)

Section 13(b)

369

(1)

Remedies for Violations of Cease and Desist Orders

370

(1)

Against Actual Parties to the Order

370

(1)

Against Non-Parties

370

(1)

F.T.C. Rulemaking

371

(1)

The Commission's Authority to Promulgate Rules

371

(1)

Trade Regulation Rules

371

(1)

Rules Authorized by Specific Acts of Congress

371

(1)

Scope and Effect of Commission Rules

371

(1)

Judicial Limits on Rulemaking

372

(1)

Legislative Limits on Rulemaking

372

(1)

The Future of Rulemaking

372

(1)

Review Questions

372

(6)

IX. CONSUMER REMEDIES FOR FALSE ADVERTISING AND OTHER EXPLOITATIVE PRACTICES

Traditional Remedies

378

(1)

Common Law Remedies

378

(1)

Deceit

378

(1)

Strict Tort Liability

379

(1)

Rescission or Restitution

379

(1)

Uniform Commercial Code

379

(1)

Unavailability of General Federal Remedies

379

(2)

No Lanham Act Remedy for Consumers

380

(1)

No F.T.C. Act § 5 Remedy for Consumers

380

(1)

Topical Federal Statutes

381

(1)

Magnuson--Moss Warranty Act

381

(1)

Not All Written Material is a ``Warranty''

381

(1)

Jurisdictional Hurdles

382

(1)

State ``Baby'' F.T.C. Statutes

382

(2)

Proof of Scienter and Reliance not Required

382

(1)

Incentives to File Suit Provided

383

(1)

Damages Need not be Quantifiable

383

(1)

Relief Against Non--Merchant Sellers

384

(1)

Prerequisites to Suits Under Baby F.T.C. Acts

384

(1)

Barriers to Consumer Litigation

384

(2)

Class Action Requirements

384

(1)

Common Issues Must Predominate

385

(1)

Nation--Wide Classes Problematic

385

(1)

Mandatory Arbitration Requirements

385

(1)

Review Questions

386

(79)

APPENDICES

Answers To Review Questions

387

(26)

Model Examination

413

(20)

Glossary

433

(20)

Text Correlation Chart

453

(6)

Table of Cases

459

(6)

Index of Key Terms

465

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Black Letter Outline on Intellectual Property

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials