Bulk Crystal Growth of Electronic, Optical and Optoelectronic Materials

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ISBN: 9780470851425 | 0470851422
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 4/1/2005

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A valuable, timely book for the crystal growth community, edited by one of the most respected members in the field. Contents cover all the important materials from silicon through the III-V and II-IV compounds to oxides, nitrides, fluorides, carbides and diamonds International group of contributors from academia and industry provide a balanced treatment Includes global interest with particular relevance to: USA, Canada, UK, France, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, China, Australia and South Africa

Series Preface

Preface

xvii

Acknowledgements

xxi

List of Contributors

xxiii

Abbreviations

xxvii

Silicon

(42)

Taketoshi Hibiya

Keigo Hoshikawa

Introduction

(2)

Crystal-growth method and technology

(15)

High-purity polycrystalline silicon

(3)

CZ-Si growth apparatus and related furnace parts

(5)

CZ-Si crystal growth

(2)

FZ (float-zone) Si crystal growth

(3)

Wafer processing

(2)

Melt process

(12)

Analysis of heat- and mass-transfer processes

(6)

Oxygen transportation process and mechanism

(3)

Control of oxygen concentration by application of cusp magnetic field

(3)

Defect and wafer quality

(9)

Oxygen precipitation and gettering

(3)

Grown-in defects

(6)

Concluding remarks

(4)

References

(3)

Growth of Gallium Arsenide

(30)

M.R. Brozel

I.R. Grant

Introduction

(2)

Doping considerations

(3)

Growth techniques

(6)

Horizontal Bridgman and horizontal gradient freeze techniques

(1)

Liquid encapsulated Czochralski (LEC) technique

(4)

Vertical gradient freeze (VGF) technique

(1)

Crystalline defects in GaAs

(5)

Defects in melt-grown, semi-insulating GaAs

(5)

Impurity and defect analysis of GaAs (chemical)

(2)

Impurity and defect analysis of GaAs (electrical)

(4)

Introduction to the electrical analysis of defects in GaAs

(4)

Impurity and defect analysis of GaAs (optical)

(2)

Optical analysis of defects in GaAs

(2)

Conclusions

(6)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(4)

Computer Modelling of Bulk Crystal Growth

(48)

Andrew Yeckel

Jeffrey J. Derby

Introduction

(1)

Present state of bulk crystal growth modelling

(2)

Bulk crystal growth processes

(2)

Transport modelling in bulk crystal growth

(10)

Governing equations

(4)

Boundary conditions

(1)

Continuum interface representation

(2)

Radiation heat-transfer modelling

(2)

Noninertial reference frames

(1)

Magnetic fields

(1)

Turbulence

(1)

Computer-aided analysis

(9)

Discretization

(1)

Numerical interface representation

(2)

Deforming grids and ALE methods

(2)

A simple fixed-grid method

(2)

Quasi-steady-state models

(2)

Modelling examples

(14)

Float-zone refinement of silicon sheets

(4)

Bridgman growth of CZT: axisymmetric analysis

102

(2)

Bridgman growth of CZT: three-dimensional analysis

104

(2)

Morphological stability in solution growth of KTP

106

(6)

Summary and outlook

112

(9)

Acknowledgments

113

(1)

References

113

(8)

Indium Phosphide Crystal Growth

121

(28)

Ian R. Grant

Introduction

121

(1)

Material properties

122

(1)

Hazards

123

(1)

Crystal structure

124

(1)

Synthesis

125

(4)

Single-crystal growth

129

(3)

Defects

132

(3)

Twins

132

(1)

Dislocations

133

(2)

Dislocation reduction

135

(1)

VGF growth

136

(3)

Crystal-growth modelling

139

(2)

Dopants

141

(4)

N-type InP

141

(1)

P-type InP

142

(1)

Semi-insulating InP

142

(3)

Conclusion

145

(4)

Acknowledgements

145

(1)

References

145

(4)

Bulk Growth of InSb and Related Ternary Alloys

149

(24)

W.F.H. Micklethwaite

Introduction---a little history

149

(1)

Why the interest?

150

(1)

Key properties

151

(4)

Crystallography

151

(3)

Growth-critical material parameters

154

(1)

Common growth conditions

154

(1)

Impurities and dopants

154

(1)

Czochralski growth

155

(9)

Challenges

156

(6)

Choice and implications of growth axis

162

(1)

Size evolution and its drivers

163

(1)

Bridgman and VGF growth

164

(1)

Other bulk growth methods

165

(1)

InSb-related pseudobinary (ternary) alloys

165

(4)

(Ga, In)Sb

166

(2)

(In, T1)Sb

168

(1)

In(As, Sb)

168

(1)

In(Bi, Sb)

168

(1)

Conclusion

169

(4)

References

169

(4)

GaN Bulk Substrates Grown under Pressure from Solution in Gallium

173

(36)

I. Grzegory

M. Bockowski

S. Porowski

Introduction

173

(2)

Phase diagrams and growth method

175

(8)

Thermodynamic properties of GaN-Ga-N2 system

175

(3)

The role of high pressure

178

(1)

Crystallization of GaN from solution

179

(3)

Experimental

182

(1)

Results of spontaneous crystallization in temperature gradient: crystals and physical properties of the crystals

183

(5)

Morphology

183

(2)

Physical properties of the pressure-grown GaN crystals

185

(3)

Discussion of crystallization in a temperature gradient

188

(4)

Crystallization on the free gallium surface

192

(2)

Directional crystallization on GaN and foreign substrates

194

(7)

Seeded growth of GaN from solutions in gallium on GaN substrates

195

(2)

Seeded growth of GaN from solutions in gallium on GaN/sapphire substrates

197

(4)

Applications of pressure-grown bulk GaN substrates

201

(2)

Summary and conclusions

203

(6)

References

205

(4)

Bulk Growth of Cadmium Mercury Telluride (CMT)

209

(32)

P. Capper

Introduction

209

(1)

Phase equilibria

210

(1)

Crystal growth

211

(27)

SSR

212

(5)

THM

217

(5)

Bridgman

222

(16)

Conclusions

238

(3)

References

238

(3)

Bulk Growth of CdZnTe/CdTe Crystals

241

(28)

R. Hirano

H. Kurita

Introduction

241

(1)

High-purity Cd and Te

242

(1)

Cadmium

242

(1)

Tellurium

243

(1)

Crystal growth

243

(17)

Polycrystal growth

243

(1)

VGF single-crystal growth

244

(16)

Wafer processing

260

(6)

Process flow

261

(3)

Characteristics

264

(2)

Summary

266

(3)

Acknowledgements

266

(1)

References

266

(3)

Bulk Crystal Growth of Wide-Bandgap II-VI Materials

269

(30)

M. Isshiki

J.F. Wang

Introduction

269

(1)

Physical and chemical properties

270

(1)

Phase diagrams

270

(1)

Crystal-growth methods

270

(10)

Growth from vapor phase

272

(4)

Growth from liquid phase

276

(4)

Crystal growth from solid phase

280

(1)

Crystal growth of wide-bandgap compounds

280

(14)

ZnS

280

(2)

ZnO

282

(2)

ZnSe

284

(7)

ZnTe

291

(3)

Conclusions

294

(5)

References

294

(5)

Sapphire Crystal Growth and Applications

299

(40)

V.A. Tatartchenko

Introduction

300

(1)

Sapphire structure

301

(1)

Sapphire crystal growth

302

(17)

Verneuil's technique (VT)

302

(6)

Floating-zone technique (FZT)

308

(2)

Czochralski technique (CzT)

310

(2)

Kyropulos technique (KT)

312

(1)

Horizontal Bridgman technique (HBT)

313

(1)

Heat-exchange method (HEM)

313

(1)

Techniques of pulling from shaper (TPS)

314

(4)

Flux technique (FT)

318

(1)

Hydrothermal technique (HTT)

319

(1)

Gas-phase technique (GPT)

319

(1)

Corundum crystal defects

319

(8)

Inclusions

319

(4)

Dislocations, low-angle grain boundaries, internal stresses

323

(3)

Twins

326

(1)

Faceting, inhomogeneities of impurity

326

(1)

Growth direction

327

(1)

Applications

327

(2)

Special windows

327

(1)

Domes

328

(1)

Substrates

329

(1)

Construction material

329

(1)

Brief crystal-growth technique characterization

329

(2)

329

(1)

FZT

330

(1)

CzT

330

(1)

330

(1)

HBT

330

(1)

HEM

330

(1)

TPS

330

(1)

FT, HTT, GPT

331

(1)

Conclusion

331

(8)

References

331

(3)

Appendix: sapphire physical properties

334

(5)

Crystal Growth of Fluorides

339

(18)

P.P. Fedorov

V.V. Osiko

Introduction

339

(1)

Polymorphism and crystal growth

340

(2)

Solid solutions: decomposition and ordering

342

(5)

Type of compound melting: congruent/incongruent

347

(1)

Phases that are not in equilibrium with melt

347

(1)

Dopant segregation coefficients

348

(1)

Morphological stability

348

(2)

Hydrolysis and melt fluoride growth

350

(7)

Acknowledgments

352

(1)

References

352

(5)

Scintillators: Crystal Growth and Scintillator Performance

357

(30)

A. Gektin

Introduction

357

(1)

Scintillator applications

358

(3)

High-energy physics

359

(2)

Medical imaging

361

(1)

Scintillation-material efficiency estimation

361

(3)

Halide scintillator growth

364

(10)

Activator distribution in scintillation single crystals

374

(2)

Oxide scintillation crystal growth

376

(2)

Influence of single-crystal perfection on scintillation characteristics

378

(3)

New scintillation crystals

381

(1)

Conclusion

382

(5)

List of definitions and abbreviations

383

(1)

References

383

(4)

Growth of Quartz Crystals

387

(20)

K. Byrappa

Introduction

387

(1)

History of quartz crystal growth

388

(3)

Physical chemistry of the growth of quartz

391

(1)

Solubility

392

(4)

Apparatus

396

(1)

Crystal growth

396

(2)

Growth of high-quality (and dislocation-free) quartz crystals

398

(3)

Growth rate

399

(1)

Seed effect

400

(1)

Nutrient effect

400

(1)

Defects observed in synthetic α-quartz single crystals

401

(1)

Processing of α-quartz for high-frequency devices

402

(2)

Conclusions

404

(3)

References

404

(3)

Crystal Growth of Diamond

407

(26)

Hisao Kanda

Introduction

407

(1)

Diamond synthesis

408

(9)

Phase diagram of carbon

408

(1)

Direct transformation

408

(1)

Agents for diamond formation

409

(2)

Carbon source

411

(1)

High-pressure apparatus

412

(1)

Diamond growth methods

412

(5)

Properties of diamond single crystals made with high-pressure methods

417

(11)

Morphology

417

(2)

Surface morphology

419

(2)

Inclusions

421

(1)

Atomic impurities, color and luminescence

422

(1)

Color control

423

(5)

Summary

428

(5)

References

428

(5)

Growth of Silicon Carbide

433

(18)

T.S. Sudarshan

D. Cherednichenko

R. Yakimova

Introduction

433

(1)

Historical development

434

(1)

Industrial production of SiC wafers

435

(2)

Growth along the conventional c- or [0001] direction

435

(1)

Bulk SiC growth along alternate orientations

436

(1)

Bulk growth of semi-insulating SiC

436

(1)

Bulk-crystal doping

437

(1)

Essentials of the bulk growth process and thermal-stress-generation mechanisms

437

(7)

Basics of the bulk growth process

437

(6)

Thermal-stress-generation mechanisms

443

(1)

Growth-related defects

444

(3)

Outlook

447

(4)

Acknowledgements

447

(1)

References

447

(4)

Photovoltaic Silicon Crystal Growth

451

(26)

T.F. Ciszek

Introduction

451

(1)

Traditional silicon growth methods applied to PV

452

(7)

Czochralski growth

452

(3)

FZ growth

455

(1)

Comparisons between CZ and FZ growth for PV

456

(3)

Multicrystalline ingot growth methods for PV

459

(4)

Casting and directional solidification

459

(2)

Semicontinuous electromagnetic casting

461

(2)

Ribbon or sheet growth methods for PV

463

(9)

Small-area solid/liquid interface growth methods

463

(5)

Large-area solid/liquid interface growth methods

468

(4)

Thin-layer growth on substrates for PV

472

(1)

Comparison of growth methods

473

(4)

References

475

(2)

Bulk Crystal Growth Under Microgravity Conditions

477

(48)

Thierry Duffar

Introduction

477

(25)

Experimental and technological environment

502

(3)

Technical limitations: time, size, power and space management

502

(2)

Environmental limitations: the gravity level

504

(1)

Scientific achievements

505

(11)

Segregation studies in Bridgman configuration

505

(3)

Experiments of crystal growth from a molten zone or molten drop

508

(2)

Sample--crucible interactions and structural aspects

510

(4)

Growth from solutions

514

(1)

Growth from the vapor phase

515

(1)

Conclusion and future directions

516

(9)

Summary of major breakthroughs

516

(1)

Problems still to be investigated and perspectives

517

(1)

References

517

(8)

Index

525

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Bulk Crystal Growth of Electronic, Optical and Optoelectronic Materials

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials