Chemistry: the Central Science : AP* Student Edition

, by Brown, Theodore L.

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ISBN: 9780131937192 | 0131937197
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 3/10/2005

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Supplemental Materials

Preface

List of Resources

xxxix

About the Authors

xli

Introduction: Matter and Measurement

(35)

The Study of Chemistry

(2)

The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry

(1)

Why Study Chemistry?

(1)

Classifications of Matter

(5)

States of Matter

(1)

Pure Substances

(1)

Elements

(1)

Compounds

(1)

Mixtures

(1)

Properties of Matter

(5)

Physical and Chemical Changes

(2)

Separation of Mixtures

(2)

Units of Measurement

(6)

SI Units

(1)

Length and Mass

(1)

Temperature

(1)

Derived SI Units

(1)

Volume

(1)

Density

(3)

Uncertainty in Measurement

(5)

Precision and Accuracy

(1)

Significant Figures

(2)

Significant Figures in Calculations

(2)

Dimensional Analysis

(11)

Using Two or More Conversion Factors

(1)

Conversions Involving Volume

(3)

Summary and Key Terms

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

(1)

Exercises

(4)

eMedia Exercises

Chemistry at Work Chemistry and the Chemical Industry

(9)

A Closer Look The Scientific Method

(5)

Chemistry at Work Chemistry in the News

(8)

Strategies in Chemistry Estimating Answers

(3)

Strategies in Chemistry The Importance of Practice

(7)

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

(42)

The Atomic Theory of Matter

(1)

The Discovery of Atomic Structure

(4)

Cathode Rays and Electrons

(2)

Radioactivity

(1)

The Nuclear Atom

(2)

The Modern View of Atomic Structure

(3)

Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and Isotopes

(1)

Atomic Weights

(3)

The Atomic Mass Scale

(1)

Average Atomic Masses

(2)

The Periodic Table

(3)

Molecules and Molecular Compounds

(3)

Molecules and Chemical Formulas

(1)

Molecular and Empirical Formulas

(1)

Picturing Molecules

(1)

Ions and Ionic Compounds

(5)

Predicting Ionic Charges

(1)

Ionic Compounds

(3)

Naming Inorganic Compounds

(7)

Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

(5)

Names and Formulas of Acids

(1)

Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds

(1)

Some Simple Organic Compounds

(11)

Alkanes

(1)

Some Derivatives of Alkanes

(1)

Summary and Key Terms

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

(1)

Exercises

(6)

eMedia Exercises

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

A Closer Look Basic Forces

(3)

A Closer Look The Mass Spectrometer

(4)

A Closer Look Glenn Seaborg and Seaborgium

(7)

Chemistry and Life Elements Required by Living Organisms

(1)

Strategies in Chemistry Pattern Recognition

(18)

Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations

(42)

Chemical Equations

(5)

Balancing Equations

(3)

Indicating the States of Reactants and Products

(1)

Some Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity

(3)

Combination and Decomposition Reactions

(2)

Combustion in Air

(1)

Formula Weights

(2)

Formula and Molecular Weights

(1)

Percentage Composition from Formulas

(1)

Avogadro's Number and the Mole

(6)

Molar Mass

(2)

Interconverting Masses and Moles

(1)

Interconverting Masses and Numbers of Particles

(1)

Empirical Formulas from Analyses

(4)

Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula

(1)

Combustion Analysis

(2)

Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations

100

(4)

Limiting Reactants

104

(16)

Theoretical Yields

107

(2)

Summary and Key Terms

109

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

110

(1)

Exercises

111

(7)

eMedia Exercises

118

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

119

Strategies in Chemistry Problem Solving

(13)

Chemistry at Work CO2 and the Greenhouse Effect

103

(5)

Strategies in Chemistry How to Take a Test

108

(12)

Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry

120

(46)

General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

122

(4)

Electrolytic Properties

122

(1)

Ionic Compounds in Water

122

(2)

Molecular Compounds in Water

124

(1)

Strong and Weak Electrolytes

124

(2)

Precipitation Reactions

126

(5)

Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds

127

(1)

Exchange (Metathesis) Reactions

128

(1)

Ionic Equations

129

(2)

Acid-Base Reactions

131

(6)

Acids

131

(1)

Bases

131

(1)

Strong and Weak Acids and Bases

131

(2)

Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes

133

(1)

Neutralization Reactions and Salts

134

(2)

Acid-Base Reactions with Gas Formation

136

(1)

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

137

(7)

Oxidation and Reduction

138

(1)

Oxidation Numbers

139

(1)

Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts

140

(2)

The Activity Series

142

(2)

Concentrations of Solutions

144

(7)

Molarity

146

(1)

Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte

147

(1)

Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume

147

(1)

Dilution

148

(3)

Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis

151

(15)

Titrations

152

(4)

Summary and Key Terms

156

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

157

(1)

Exercises

158

(6)

eMedia Exercises

164

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

165

Chemistry at Work Antacids

137

(8)

A Closer Look The Aura of Gold

145

(1)

Strategies in Chemistry Analyzing Chemical Reactions

145

(4)

Chemistry and Life Drinking Too Much Water Can Kill You

149

(17)

Thermochemistry

166

(50)

The Nature of Energy

168

(4)

Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy

168

(1)

Units of Energy

169

(1)

System and Surroundings

170

(1)

Transferring Energy: Work and Heat

170

(2)

The First Law of Thermodynamics

172

(4)

Internal Energy

172

(1)

Relating ΔE to Heat and Work

173

(1)

Endothermic and Exothermic Processes

174

(1)

State Functions

174

(2)

Enthalpy

176

(4)

Enthalpies of Reaction

180

(2)

Calorimetry

182

(5)

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

182

(2)

Constant-Pressure Calorimetry

184

(2)

Bomb Calorimetry (Constant-Volume Calorimetry)

186

(1)

Hess's Law

187

(4)

Enthalpies of Formation

191

(5)

Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction

193

(3)

Foods and Fuels

196

(20)

Foods

196

(2)

Fuels

198

(1)

Other Energy Sources

199

(4)

Summary and Key Terms

203

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

204

(1)

Exercises

205

(8)

eMedia Exercises

213

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

214

A Closer Look Energy, Enthalpy, and P-V Work

179

(4)

Strategies in Chemistry Using Enthalpy as a Guide

183

(5)

Chemistry and Life The Regulation of Human Body Temperature

188

(12)

Chemistry at Work The Hybrid Car

200

(16)

Electronic Structure of Atoms

216

(44)

The Wave Nature of Light

218

(2)

Quantized Energy and Photons

220

(4)

Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy

221

(1)

The Photoelectric Effect and Photons

222

(2)

Line Spectra and the Bohr Model

224

(4)

Line Spectra

224

(1)

Bohr's Model

225

(1)

The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom

226

(2)

Limitations of the Bohr Model

228

(1)

The Wave Behavior of Matter

228

(3)

The Uncertainty Principle

229

(2)

Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals

231

(3)

Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

232

(2)

Representations of Orbitals

234

(4)

The s Orbitals

234

(3)

The p Orbitals

237

(1)

The d and f Orbitals

237

(1)

Many-Electron Atoms

238

(2)

Orbitals and Their Energies

238

(1)

Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle

239

(1)

Electron Configurations

240

(6)

Hund's Rule

242

(1)

Condensed Electron Configurations

243

(1)

Transition Metals

244

(1)

The Lanthanides and Actinides

245

(1)

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

246

(14)

Anomalous Electron Configurations

249

(1)

Summary and Key Terms

250

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

251

(1)

Exercises

252

(6)

eMedia Exercises

258

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

259

A Closer Look Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle

230

(6)

A Closer Look Probability Density and Radial Probability Functions

236

(4)

A Closer Look Experimental Evidence for Electron Spin

240

(1)

Chemistry and Life Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging

241

(19)

Periodic Properties of the Elements

260

(40)

Development of the Periodic Table

262

(1)

Effective Nuclear Charge

263

(2)

Sizes of Atoms and Ions

265

(6)

Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii

267

(1)

Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii

268

(3)

Ionization Energy

271

(4)

Variations in Successive Ionization Energies

271

(1)

Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies

272

(2)

Electron Configurations of Ions

274

(1)

Electron Affinities

275

(1)

Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

276

(5)

Metals

277

(2)

Nonmetals

279

(2)

Metalloids

281

(1)

Group Trends for the Active Metals

281

(5)

Group 1A: The Alkali Metals

281

(4)

Group 2A: The Alkaline Earth Metals

285

(1)

Group Trends for Selected Nonmetals

286

(14)

Hydrogen

286

(1)

Group 6A: The Oxygen Group

286

(2)

Group 7A: The Halogens

288

(1)

Group 8A: The Noble Gases

289

(1)

Summary and Key Terms

290

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

291

(1)

Exercises

292

(6)

eMedia Exercises

298

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

299

Chemistry and Life Ionic Size Makes a BIG Difference

270

(14)

Chemistry and Life The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs

284

(16)

Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding

300

(44)

Chemical Bonds, Lewis Symbols, and the Octet Rule

302

(1)

Lewis Symbols

302

(1)

The Octet Rule

303

(1)

Ionic Bonding

303

(6)

Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation

305

(1)

Electron Configurations of Ions of the Representative Elements

306

(1)

Transition-Metal Ions

307

(2)

Polyatomic Ions

309

(1)

Covalent Bonding

309

(3)

Lewis Structures

310

(1)

Multiple Bonds

311

(1)

Bond Polarity and Electronegativity

312

(5)

Electronegativity

312

(1)

Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

313

(1)

Dipole Moments

314

(3)

Bond Types and Nomenclature

317

(1)

Drawing Lewis Structures

317

(5)

Formal Charge

320

(2)

Resonance Structures

322

(3)

Resonance in Benzene

324

(1)

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

325

(3)

Odd Number of Electrons

326

(1)

Less than an Octet of Valence Electrons

326

(1)

More than an Octet of Valence Electrons

327

(1)

Strengths of Covalent Bonds

328

(16)

Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions

330

(3)

Bond Enthalpy and Bond Length

333

(2)

Summary and Key Terms

335

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

336

(1)

Exercises

336

(7)

eMedia Exercises

343

A Closer Look Calculation of Lattice Energies: The Born--Haber Cycle

308

(14)

A Closer Look Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges, and Actual Partial Charges

322

(10)

Chemistry at Work Explosives and Alfred Nobel

332

(12)

Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories

344

(54)

Molecular Shapes

346

(2)

The VSEPR Model

348

(9)

The Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles

352

(1)

Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells

353

(3)

Shapes of Larger Molecules

356

(1)

Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity

357

(3)

Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap

360

(1)

Hybrid Orbitals

361

(6)

sp Hybrid Orbitals

361

(2)

sp2 and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals

363

(2)

Hybridization Involving d Orbitals

365

(1)

Summary

365

(2)

Multiple Bonds

367

(6)

Delocalized π Bonding

370

(3)

General Conclusions

373

(1)

Molecular Orbitals

373

(3)

The Hydrogen Molecule

373

(2)

Bond Order

375

(1)

Second-Row Diatomic Molecules

376

(22)

Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2

376

(1)

Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals

377

(3)

Electron Configurations for B2 Through Ne2

380

(2)

Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties

382

(2)

Heteronudear Diatomic Molecules

384

(3)

Summary and Key Terms

387

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

388

(1)

Exercises

389

(7)

eMedia Exercises

396

Chemistry and Life The Chemistry of Vision

372

(6)

A Closer Look Phases in Atomic and Molecular Orbitals

378

(7)

Chemistry at Work Organic Dyes

385

(13)

Gases

398

(44)

Characteristics of Gases

400

(1)

Pressure

401

(3)

Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer

401

(3)

The Gas Laws

404

(4)

The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle's Law

404

(2)

The Temperature-Volume Relationship: Charles's Law

406

(1)

The Quantity-Volume Relationship: Avogadro's Law

407

(1)

The Ideal-Gas Equation

408

(5)

Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws

410

(3)

Further Applications of the Ideal-Gas Equation

413

(4)

Gas Densities and Molar Mass

413

(2)

Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions

415

(2)

Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures

417

(3)

Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions

418

(1)

Collecting Gases over Water

419

(1)

Kinetic-Molecular Theory

420

(3)

Application to the Gas Laws

422

(1)

Molecular Effusion and Diffusion

423

(4)

Graham's Law of Effusion

424

(2)

Diffusion and Mean Free Path

426

(1)

Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior

427

(15)

The van der Waals Equation

429

(2)

Summary and Key Terms

431

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

432

(1)

Exercises

433

(7)

eMedia Exercises

440

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

440

Chemistry and Life Blood Pressure

404

(7)

Strategies in Chemistry Calculations Involving Many Variables

411

(5)

Chemistry at Work Gas Pipelines

416

(6)

A Closer Look The Ideal-Gas Equation

422

(5)

Chemistry at Work Gas Separations

427

(15)

Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids

442

(44)

A Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

444

(1)

Intermolecular Forces

445

(8)

Ion-Dipole Forces

446

(1)

Dipole-Dipole Forces

446

(1)

London Dispersion Forces

447

(2)

Hydrogen Bonding

449

(3)

Comparing Intermolecular Forces

452

(1)

Some Properties of Liquids

453

(2)

Viscosity

453

(1)

Surface Tension

454

(1)

Phase Changes

455

(4)

Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes

455

(1)

Heating Curves

456

(2)

Critical Temperature and Pressure

458

(1)

Vapor Pressure

459

(3)

Explaining Vapor Pressure on the Molecular Level

460

(1)

Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature

460

(1)

Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point

461

(1)

Phase Diagrams

462

(2)

The Phase Diagrams of H2O and CO2

463

(1)

Structures of Solids

464

(6)

Unit Cells

466

(1)

The Crystal Structure of Sodium Chloride

467

(2)

Close Packing of Spheres

469

(1)

Bonding in Solids

470

(16)

Molecular Solids

470

(2)

Covalent-Network Solids

472

(1)

Ionic Solids

473

(1)

Metallic Solids

473

(2)

Summary and Key Terms

475

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

476

(2)

Exercises

478

(6)

eMedia Exercises

484

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

485

Chemistry at Work Supercritical Fluid Extraction

459

(3)

A Closer Look The Clausius--Clapeyron Equation

462

(9)

A Closer Look X-Ray Diffraction by Crystals

471

(3)

A Closer Look Buckyball

474

(12)

Modern Materials

486

(42)

Classes of Materials

488

(6)

Metals and Semiconductors

488

(3)

Insulators and Ceramics

491

(1)

Superconductors

491

(3)

Materials for Structure

494

(10)

Soft Materials: Polymers and Plastics

495

(1)

Making Polymers

495

(3)

Structure and Physical Properties of Polymers

498

(3)

Hard Materials: Metals and Ceramics

501

(2)

Making Ceramics

503

(1)

Materials for Medicine

504

(4)

Characteristics of Biomaterials

504

(1)

Polymeric Biomaterials

505

(1)

Examples of Biomaterial Applications

505

(3)

Materials for Electronics

508

(2)

The Silicon Chip

508

(2)

Plastic Electronics

510

(1)

Solar Energy Conversion

510

(1)

Materials for Optics

510

(5)

Liquid Crystals

510

(1)

Types of Liquid Crystalline Phases

511

(2)

Semiconductor Light-Emitting Diodes

513

(2)

Materials for Nanotechnology

515

(13)

Semiconductors on the Nanoscale

515

(2)

Metals on the Nanoscale

517

(1)

Carbon Nanotubes

517

(2)

Summary and Key Terms

519

(2)

Visualizing Concepts

521

(1)

Exercises

522

(5)

eMedia Exercises

527

Chemistry at Work Cell Phone Tower Range

494

(3)

Chemistry at Work Recycling Plastics

497

(5)

Chemistry at Work Toward the Plastic Car

502

(7)

A Closer Look The Transistor

509

(5)

Chemistry at Work Liquid Crystal Displays

514

(14)

Properties of Solutions

528

(46)

The Solution Process

530

(5)

Energy Changes and Solution Formation

531

(1)

Solution Formation, Spontaneity, and Disorder

532

(1)

Solution Formation and Chemical Reactions

533

(2)

Saturated Solutions and Solubility

535

(2)

Factors Affecting Solubility

537

(6)

Solute-Solvent Interactions

537

(4)

Pressure Effects

541

(1)

Temperature Effects

542

(1)

Ways of Expressing Concentration

543

(5)

Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb

543

(1)

Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality

544

(2)

Conversion of Concentration Units

546

(2)

Colligative Properties

548

(10)

Lowering the Vapor Pressure

548

(2)

Boiling-Point Elevation

550

(1)

Freezing-Point Depression

551

(2)

Osmosis

553

(3)

Determination of Molar Mass

556

(2)

Colloids

558

(16)

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids

559

(2)

Removal of Colloidal Particles

561

(2)

Summary and Key Terms

563

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

564

(2)

Exercises

566

(6)

eMedia Exercises

572

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

573

A Closer Look Hydrates

534

(6)

Chemistry and Life Fat-and Water-Soluble Vitamins

540

(2)

Chemistry and Life Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving

542

(7)

A Closer Look Ideal Solutions with Two or More Volatile Components

549

(8)

A Closer Look Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions

557

(4)

Chemistry and Life Sickle-Cell Anemia

561

(13)

Chemical Kinetics

574

(54)

Factors that Affect Reaction Rates

576

(1)

Reaction Rates

577

(5)

Change of Rate with Time

579

(1)

Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry

580

(2)

Concentration and Rate

582

(5)

Exponents in the Rate Law

583

(2)

Units of Rate Constants

585

(1)

Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws

585

(2)

The Change of Concentration with Time

587

(6)

First-Order Reactions

587

(2)

Second-Order Reactions

589

(2)

Half-life

591

(2)

Temperature and Rate

593

(6)

The Collision Model

594

(1)

The Orientation Factor

594

(1)

Activation Energy

595

(1)

The Arrhenius Equation

596

(1)

Determining the Activation Energy

597

(2)

Reaction Mechanisms

599

(8)

Elementary Reactions

599

(1)

Multistep Mechanisms

600

(1)

Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions

601

(1)

The Rate-Determining Step for a Multistep Mechanism

602

(1)

Mechanisms with a Slow Initial Step

603

(2)

Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step

605

(2)

Catalysis

607

(21)

Homogeneous Catalysis

607

(2)

Heterogeneous Catalysis

609

(1)

Enzymes

610

(5)

Summary and Key Terms

615

(2)

Visualizing Concepts

617

(1)

Exercises

618

(9)

eMedia Exercises

627

A Closer Look Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure Reaction Rates

581

(11)

Chemistry at Work Methyl Bromide in the Atmosphere

592

(19)

Chemistry at Work Catalytic Converters

611

(2)

Chemistry and Life Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase

613

(15)

Chemical Equilibrium

628

(40)

The Concept of Equilibrium

630

(2)

The Equilibrium Constant

632

(5)

Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure, Kp

635

(2)

Equilibrium Constants and Units

637

(1)

Interpreting and Working with Equilibrium Constants

637

(4)

The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants

637

(1)

The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K

638

(1)

Relating Chemical Equations and Equilibrium Constants

639

(2)

Heterogeneous Equilibria

641

(2)

Calculating Equilibrium Constants

643

(3)

Applications of Equilibrium Constants

646

(3)

Predicting the Direction of Reaction

646

(1)

Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations

647

(2)

Le Chatelier's Principle

649

(19)

Change in Reactant or Product Concentrations

650

(1)

Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes

651

(2)

Effect of Temperature Changes

653

(3)

The Effect of Catalysts

656

(3)

Summary and Key Terms

659

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

660

(1)

Exercises

661

(6)

eMedia Exercises

667

Chemistry at Work The Haber Process

633

(25)

Chemistry at Work Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions

658

(10)

Acid-Base Equilibria

668

(52)

Acids and Bases: A Brief Review

670

(1)

Brønsted--Lowry Acids and Bases

670

(6)

The H+ Ion in Water

670

(1)

Proton-Transfer Reactions

671

(1)

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs

672

(2)

Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases

674

(2)

The Autoionization of Water

676

(2)

The Ion Product of Water

676

(2)

The pH Scale

678

(4)

Other ``p'' Scales

681

(1)

Measuring pH

681

(1)

Strong Acids and Bases

682

(2)

Strong Acids

682

(1)

Strong Bases

683

(1)

Weak Acids

684

(9)

Calculating Ka from pH

685

(2)

Using Ka to Calculate pH

687

(4)

Polyprotic Acids

691

(2)

Weak Bases

693

(3)

Types of Weak Bases

695

(1)

Relationship Between Ka and Kb

696

(3)

Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions

699

(3)

An Anion's Ability to React with Water

699

(1)

A Cation's Ability to React with Water

700

(1)

Combined Effect of Cation and Anion in Solution

700

(2)

Acid-Base Behavior and Chemical Structure

702

(4)

Factors that Affect Acid Strength

702

(1)

Binary Acids

703

(1)

Oxyacids

704

(1)

Carboxylic Acids

705

(1)

Lewis Acids and Bases

706

(14)

Hydrolysis of Metal Ions

708

(3)

Summary and Key Terms

711

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

712

(1)

Exercises

713

(6)

eMedia Exercises

719

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

719

Chemistry at Work Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides

698

(9)

Chemistry and Life The Amphiprotic Behavior of Amino Acids

707

(13)

Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria

720

(48)

The Common-Ion Effect

722

(3)

Buffered Solutions

725

(7)

Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions

725

(1)

Calculating the pH of a Buffer

726

(2)

Buffer Capacity and pH Range

728

(1)

Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers

729

(3)

Acid-Base Titrations

732

(7)

Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations

732

(3)

Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations

735

(4)

Titrations of Polyprotic Acids

739

(1)

Solubility Equilibria

739

(4)

The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp

740

(1)

Solubility and Ksp

741

(2)

Factors that Affect Solubility

743

(11)

Common-Ion Effect

744

(1)

Solubility and pH

745

(3)

Formation of Complex Ions

748

(3)

Amphoterism

751

(3)

Precipitation and Separation of Ions

754

(2)

Selective Precipitation of Ions

754

(2)

Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements

756

(12)

Summary and Key Terms

759

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

760

(1)

Exercises

761

(5)

eMedia Exercises

766

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

767

Chemistry and Life Blood as a Buffered Solution

731

(12)

A Closer Look Limitations of Solubility Products

743

(4)

Chemistry and Life Sinkholes

747

(3)

Chemistry and Life Tooth Decay and Fluoridation

750

(18)

Chemistry of the Environment

768

(34)

Earth's Atmosphere

770

(2)

Composition of the Atmosphere

771

(1)

Outer Regions of the Atmosphere

772

(2)

Photodissociation

772

(2)

Photoionization

774

(1)

Ozone in the Upper Atmosphere

774

(4)

Depletion of the Ozone Layer

776

(2)

Chemistry of the Troposphere

778

(7)

Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain

778

(2)

Carbon Monoxide

780

(1)

Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog

781

(2)

Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate

783

(2)

The World Ocean

785

(2)

Seawater

785

(1)

Desalination

786

(1)

Fresh Water

787

(3)

Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality

788

(1)

Treatment of Municipal Water Supplies

789

(1)

Green Chemistry

790

(12)

Solvents and Reagents

791

(2)

Other Processes

793

(1)

The Challenges of Water Purification

793

(2)

Summary and Key Terms

795

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

796

(1)

Exercises

797

(4)

eMedia Exercises

801

A Closer Look Methane as a Greenhouse Gas

784

(6)

A Closer Look Water Softening

790

(12)

Chemical Thermodynamics

802

(44)

Spontaneous Processes

804

(4)

Seeking a Criterion for Spontaneity

806

(1)

Reversible and Irreversible Processes

806

(2)

Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

808

(3)

Entropy Change

808

(1)

ΔS for Phase Changes

809

(1)

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

810

(1)

The Molecular Interpretation of Entropy

811

(9)

Molecular Motions and Energy

812

(1)

Boltzmann's Equation and Microstates

812

(3)

Making Qualitative Predictions About ΔS

815

(3)

The Third Law of Thermodynamics

818

(2)

Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions

820

(2)

Entropy Changes in the Surroundings

821

(1)

Gibbs Free Energy

822

(5)

Standard Free-Energy Changes

824

(3)

Free Energy and Temperature

827

(3)

Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant

830

(16)

Summary and Key Terms

835

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

836

(1)

Exercises

837

(7)

eMedia Exercises

844

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

845

A Closer Look The Entropy Change when a Gas Expands Isothermally

810

(4)

A Closer Look Entropy and Probability

814

(4)

Chemistry and Life Entropy and Life

818

(7)

A Closer Look What's ``Free'' About Free Energy?

825

(8)

Chemistry and Life Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions

833

(13)

Electrochemistry

846

(54)

Oxidation States

848

(2)

Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations

850

(5)

Half-Reactions

850

(1)

Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions

850

(4)

Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution

854

(1)

Voltaic Cells

855

(5)

A Molecular View of Electrode Processes

859

(1)

Cell EMF Under Standard Conditions

860

(8)

Standard Reduction (Half-Cell) Potentials

861

(5)

Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

866

(2)

Free Energy and Redox Reactions

868

(3)

EMF and ΔG

869

(2)

Cell EMF Under Nonstandard Conditions

871

(6)

The Nernst Equation

872

(2)

Concentration Cells

874

(3)

Batteries and Fuel Cells

877

(4)

Lead-Acid Battery

878

(1)

Alkaline Battery

879

(1)

Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Metal-Hydride, and Lithium-Ion Batteries

879

(1)

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

880

(1)

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells

881

(1)

Corrosion

881

(2)

Corrosion of Iron

881

(1)

Preventing the Corrosion of Iron

882

(1)

Electrolysis

883

(17)

Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis

885

(1)

Electrical Work

886

(3)

Summary and Key Terms

889

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

890

(1)

Exercises

890

(9)

eMedia Exercises

899

(1)

eLaboratory Exercises

899

Chemistry and Life Heartbeats and Electrocardiography

876

(24)

Nuclear Chemistry

900

(36)

Radioactivity

902

(3)

Nuclear Equations

902

(1)

Types of Radioactive Decay

903

(2)

Patterns of Nuclear Stability

905

(3)

Neutron-to-Proton Ratio

905

(2)

Radioactive Series

907

(1)

Further Observations

907

(1)

Nuclear Transmutations

908

(2)

Accelerating Charged Particles

909

(1)

Using Neutrons

909

(1)

Transuranium Elements

910

(1)

Rates of Radioactive Decay

910

(5)

Dating

911

(1)

Calculations Based on Half-life

912

(3)

Detection of Radioactivity

915

(1)

Radiotracers

916

(1)

Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions

916

(4)

Nuclear Binding Energies

918

(2)

Nuclear Fission

920

(4)

Nuclear Reactors

921

(3)

Nuclear Fusion

924

(1)

Biological Effects of Radiation

925

(11)

Radiation Doses

926

(1)

Radon

927

(3)

Summary and Key Terms

930

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

931

(1)

Exercises

931

(4)

eMedia Exercises

935

Chemistry and Life Medical Applications of Radiotracers

918

(4)

A Closer Look The Dawning of the Nuclear Age

922

(6)

Chemistry and Life Radiation Therapy

928

(8)

Chemistry of the Nonmetals

936

(56)

General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions

938

(3)

Chemical Reactions

940

(1)

Hydrogen

941

(4)

Isotopes of Hydrogen

941

(1)

Properties of Hydrogen

942

(1)

Preparation of Hydrogen

943

(1)

Uses of Hydrogen

943

(1)

Binary Hydrogen Compounds

944

(1)

Group 8A: The Noble Gases

945

(2)

Noble-Gas Compounds

946

(1)

Group 7A: The Halogens

947

(6)

Properties and Preparation of the Halogens

948

(1)

Uses of the Halogens

949

(1)

The Hydrogen Halides

950

(1)

Interhalogen Compounds

950

(1)

Oxyacids and Oxyanions

951

(2)

Oxygen

953

(5)

Properties of Oxygen

953

(1)

Preparation of Oxygen

953

(1)

Uses of Oxygen

953

(1)

Ozone

954

(1)

Oxides

955

(2)

Peroxides and Superoxides

957

(1)

The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po

958

(4)

General Characteristics of the Group 6A Elements

958

(1)

Occurrence and Preparation of S, Se, and Te

958

(1)

Properties and Uses of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium

959

(1)

Sulfides

960

(1)

Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur

960

(2)

Nitrogen

962

(5)

Properties of Nitrogen

962

(1)

Preparation and Uses of Nitrogen

963

(1)

Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen

963

(1)

Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen

964

(3)

The Other Group 5A Elements: P, As, Sb, and Bi

967

(5)

General Characteristics of the Group 5A Elements

967

(1)

Occurrence, Isolation, and Properties of Phosphorus

968

(1)

Phosphorus Halides

968

(1)

Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus

969

(3)

Carbon

972

(5)

Elemental Forms of Carbon

972

(1)

Oxides of Carbon

973

(2)

Carbonic Acid and Carbonates

975

(1)

Carbides

976

(1)

Other Inorganic Compounds of Carbon

977

(1)

The Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb

977

(4)

General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements

977

(1)

Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon

978

(1)

Silicates

978

(2)

Glass

980

(1)

Silicones

981

(1)

Boron

981

(11)

Summary and Key Terms

983

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

984

(2)

Exercises

986

(5)

eMedia Exercises

991

A Closer Look The Hydrogen Economy

944

(8)

Chemistry and Life How Much Perchlorate Is Too Much?

952

(14)

Chemistry and Life Nitroglycerin and Heart Disease

966

(6)

Chemistry and Life Arsenic in Drinking Water

972

(2)

Chemistry at Work Carbon Fibers and Composites

974

(18)

Metals and Metallurgy

992

(32)

Occurrence and Distribution of Metals

994

(2)

Minerals

994

(1)

Metallurgy

995

(1)

Pyrometallurgy

996

(3)

The Pyrometallurgy of Iron

997

(1)

Formation of Steel

998

(1)

Hydrometallurgy

999

(1)

The Hydrometallurgy of Aluminum

1000

(1)

Electrometallurgy

1000

(4)

Electrometallurgy of Sodium

1001

(1)

Electrometallurgy of Aluminum

1001

(1)

Electrorefining of Copper

1001

(3)

Metallic Bonding

1004

(2)

Physical Properties of Metals

1004

(1)

Electron-Sea Model for Metallic Bonding

1004

(1)

Molecular-Orbital Model for Metals

1005

(1)

Alloys

1006

(4)

Intermetallic Compounds

1008

(2)

Transition Metals

1010

(3)

Physical Properties

1010

(1)

Electron Configurations and Oxidation States

1011

(2)

Magnetism

1013

(1)

Chemistry of Selected Transition Metals

1013

(11)

Chromium

1014

(1)

Iron

1014

(1)

Copper

1015

(2)

Summary and Key Terms

1017

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

1018

(1)

Exercises

1019

(3)

eMedia Exercises

1022

A Closer Look Charles M. Hall

1002

(7)

A Closer Look Shape-Memory Alloys

1009

(15)

Chemistry of Coordination Compounds

1024

(38)

Metal Complexes

1026

(5)

The Development of Coordination Chemistry: Werner's Theory

1026

(2)

The Metal-Ligand Bond

1028

(1)

Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries

1029

(2)

Ligands with More than One Donor Atom

1031

(6)

Metals and Chelates in Living Systems

1033

(4)

Nomenclature of Coordination Chemistry

1037

(1)

Isomerism

1038

(5)

Structural Isomerism

1039

(1)

Stereoisomerism

1039

(4)

Color and Magnetism

1043

(2)

Color

1043

(2)

Magnetism

1045

(1)

Crystal-Field Theory

1045

(17)

Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes

1049

(1)

Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes

1050

(4)

Summary and Key Terms

1054

(1)

Visualizing Concepts

1055

(1)

Exercises

1056

(5)

eMedia Exercises

1061

A Closer Look Entropy and the Chelate Effect

1033

(3)

Chemistry and Life The Battle for Iron in Living Systems

1036

(16)

A Closer Look Charge-Transfer Color

1052

(10)

The Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemistry

1062

Some General Characteristics of Organic Molecules

1064

(2)

The Structures of Organic Molecules

1064

(1)

The Stabilities of Organic Substances

1065

(1)

Solubility and Acid-Base Properties of Organic Substances

1066

(1)

Introduction to Hydrocarbons

1066

(1)

Alkanes

1067

(8)

Structures of Alkanes

1068

(1)

Structural Isomers

1069

(1)

Nomenclature of Alkanes

1070

(2)

Cycloalkanes

1072

(1)

Reactions of Alkanes

1073

(2)

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

1075

(7)

Alkenes

1075

(2)

Alkynes

1077

(1)

Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes

1077

(2)

Mechanism of Addition Reactions

1079

(2)

Aromatic Hydrocarbons

1081

(1)

Functional Groups: Alcohols and Ethers

1082

(4)

Alcohols ---OH

1084

(1)

Ethers ---O---

1085

(1)

Compounds with a Carbonyl Group

1086

(5)

Aldehydes O==C --- H and Ketones --- C==O ---

1086

(1)

Carboxylic Acids C==O -OH

1087

(1)

Esters --C==O--C--

1088

(2)

Amines and Amides

1090

(1)

Chirality in Organic Chemistry

1091

(2)

Introduction to Biochemistry

1093

(1)

Proteins

1094

(5)

Amino Acids

1094

(2)

Polypeptides and Proteins

1096

(1)

Protein Structure

1097

(2)

Carbohydrates

1099

(4)

Disaccharides

1011

(90)

Polysaccharides

1101

(2)

Nucleic Acids

1103

(13)

Summary and Key Terms

1107

(2)

Visualizing Concepts

1109

(1)

Exercises

1110

(5)

eMedia Exercises

1115

Chemistry at Work Gasoline

1073

(5)

Chemistry at Work The Accidental Discovery of Teflon®

1078

(4)

A Closer Look Aromatic Stabilization

1082

(6)

Chemistry at Work Portrait of an Organic Chemical

1088

(10)

Chemistry and Life The Origins of Chirality in Living Systems

1098

(9)

Strategies in Chemistry What Now?

1107

(9)

Appendices

A Mathematical Operations

1116

(6)

B Properties of Water

1122

(1)

C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15 K (25°C)

1123

(3)

D Aqueous Equilibrium Constants

1126

(2)

E Standard Reduction Potentials at 25°C

1128

Answers to Selected Exercises

(34)

Answers to ``Give it Some Thought'' Questions

Glossary

(1)

Photo/Art Credits

(1)

Index

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Chemistry: the Central Science : AP* Student Edition

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