Concise Guide to APA Style

The American Psychological Association is the leading scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States, with researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants, and students as its members.

1. Student Paper Types, Elements, and Format
General Guidelines for Student Papers
1.1 Application of APA Style to Student Papers
1.2 Student Essays
1.3 Annotated Bibliographies
1.4 Dissertations and Theses
1.5 Student Paper Required Elements
Paper Elements
1.6 Title Page
1.7 Title
1.8 Author Name (Byline)
1.9 Author Affiliation
1.10 Abstract
1.11 Text (Body)
1.12 Reference List
1.13 Footnotes
1.14 Appendices
Format
1.15 Importance of Format
1.16 Order of Pages
1.17 Page Header
1.18 Font
1.19 Special Characters
1.20 Line Spacing
1.21 Margins
1.22 Paragraph Alignment
1.23 Paragraph Indentation
1.24 Paper Length
Organization
1.25 Principles of Organization
1.26 Heading Levels
1.27 Section Labels
Sample Student Paper
 
2. Writing Style and Grammar
Effective Scholarly Writing
2.1 Continuity and Flow
2.2 Transitions
2.3 Noun Strings
2.4 Conciseness and Clarity
2.5 Wordiness and Redundancy
2.6 Sentence and Paragraph Length
2.7 Tone
2.8 Contractions and Colloquialisms
2.9 Jargon
2.10 Logical Comparisons
2.11 Anthropomorphism
Grammar and Usage
2.12 Verb Tense
2.13 Active and Passive Voice
2.14 Mood
2.15 Subject and Verb Agreement
2.16 First- Versus Third-Person Pronouns
2.17 Editorial “We”
2.18 Singular “They”
2.19 Pronouns for People and Animals (“Who” vs. “That”)
2.20 Pronouns as Subjects and Objects (“Who vs. Whom”)
2.21 Pronouns in Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses (“That” vs. “Which”)
2.22 Subordinate Conjunctions
2.23 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
2.24 Parallel Construction
Strategies to Improve Your Writing
2.25 Reading to Learn Through Example
2.26 Writing From an Outline
2.27 Rereading the Draft
2.28 Seeking Help From Fellow Students
2.29 Working With Writing Centers
2.30 Revising a Paper
 
3. Bias-Free Language Guidelines
General Guidelines for Reducing Bias
3.1 Describe at the Appropriate Level of Specificity
3.2 Be Sensitive to Labels
Reducing Bias by Topic
3.3 Age
3.4 Disability
3.5 Gender
3.6 Participation in Research
3.7 Racial and Ethnic Identity
3.8 Sexual Orientation
3.9 Socioeconomic Status
3.10 Intersectionality
 
4. Punctuation, Lists, and Italics
Punctuation
4.1 Spacing After Punctuation Marks
4.2 Period
4.3 Comma
4.4 Semicolon
4.5 Colon
4.6 Dash
4.7 Quotation Marks
4.8 Parentheses
4.9 Square Brackets
4.10 Slash
Lists
4.11 List Guidelines
4.12 Lettered Lists
4.13 Numbered Lists
4.14 Bulleted Lists
Italics
4.15 Use of Italics
4.16 Reverse Italics
 
5. Spelling, Capitalization, and Abbreviations
Spelling
5.1 Preferred Spelling
5.2 Hyphenation
Capitalization
5.3 Words Beginning a Sentence
5.4 Proper Nouns and Trade Names
5.5 Job Titles and Positions
5.6 Diseases, Disorders, Therapies, Theories, and Related Terms
5.7 Titles of Works and Headings Within Works
5.8 Titles of Tests and Measures
5.9 Nouns Followed by Numerals or Letters
5.10 Names of Conditions or Groups in an Experiment
5.11 Names of Factors, Variables, and Effects
Abbreviations
5.12 Use of Abbreviations
5.13 Definition of Abbreviations
5.14 Format of Abbreviations
5.15 Unit of Measurement Abbreviations
5.16 Time Abbreviations
5.17 Latin Abbreviations
5.18 Chemical Compound Abbreviations 
 
6. Numbers and Statistics
Numbers
6.1 Numbers Expressed in Numerals
6.2 Numbers Expressed in Words
6.3 Combining Numerals and Words to Express Numbers
6.4 Ordinal Numbers
6.5 Decimal Fractions
6.6 Roman Numerals
6.7 Commas in Numbers
6.8 Plurals of Numbers
Statistics and Equations
6.9 Presentation of Statistics
6.10 Statistical Symbols and Abbreviations
6.11 Spacing, Alignment, and Punctuation for Statistics
6.12 Presentation of Equations
 
7. Tables and Figures
General Guidelines for Tables and Figures
7.1 Purpose of Tables and Figures
7.2 Design and Preparation of Tables and Figures
7.3 Graphical Versus Textual Presentation
7.4 Formatting Tables and Figures
7.5 Referring to Tables and Figures in the Text
7.6 Placement of Tables and Figures
7.7 Reprinting or Adapting Tables and Figures
Tables
7.8 Principles of Table Construction
7.9 Table Components
7.10 Table Numbers
7.11 Table Titles
7.12 Table Headings
7.13 Table Body
7.14 Table Notes
7.15 Standard Abbreviations in Tables and Figures
7.16 Confidence Intervals in Tables
7.17 Table Borders and Shading
7.18 Long or Wide Tables
7.19 Relation Between Tables
7.20 Table Checklist
7.21 Sample Tables
Figures
7.22 Principles of Figure Construction
7.23 Figure Components
7.24 Figure Numbers
7.25 Figure Titles
7.26 Figure Images
7.27 Figure Legends
7.28 Figure Notes
7.29 Relation Between Figures
7.30 Photographs
7.31 Figure Checklist
7.32 Sample Figures

8. Works Credited in the Text
General Guidelines for Citation
8.1 Appropriate Level of Citation
8.2 Plagiarism
8.3 Self-Plagiarism
8.4 Correspondence Between Reference List and Text
8.5 Use of the Published Version or Archival Version
8.6 Primary and Secondary Sources
Works Requiring Special Approaches
8.7 Interviews
8.8 Classroom or Intranet Sources
8.9 Personal Communications
In-Text Citations
8.10 Author–Date Citation System
8.11 Parenthetical and Narrative Citations
8.12 Citing Multiple Works
8.13 Citing Specific Parts of a Source
8.14 Unknown or Anonymous Author
8.15 Translated, Reprinted, Republished, and Reissued Dates
8.16 Omitting the Year in Repeated Narrative Citations
8.17 Number of Authors to Include in In-Text Citations
8.18 Avoiding Ambiguity in In-Text Citations
8.19 Works With the Same Author and Same Date
8.20 Authors With the Same Surname
8.21 Abbreviating Group Authors
8.22 General Mentions of Websites, Periodicals, and Common Software and Apps
Paraphrases and Quotations
8.23 Principles of Paraphrasing
8.24 Long Paraphrases
8.25 Principles of Direct Quotation
8.26 Short Quotations (Fewer Than 40 Words)
8.27 Block Quotations (40 Words or More)
8.28 Direct Quotation of Material Without Page Numbers
8.29 Accuracy of Quotations
8.30 Changes to a Quotation Requiring No Explanation
8.31 Changes to a Quotation Requiring Explanation
8.32 Quotations That Contain Citations to Other Works
8.33 Quotations That Contain Material Already in Quotation Marks
8.34 Epigraphs
Copyright and Permission
8.35 General Guidelines for Reprinting or Adapting Materials
8.36 Materials That Require a Copyright Attribution
8.37 Copyright Status
8.38 Permission and Fair Use
8.39 Copyright Attribution Formats
 
9. Reference List
Reference Categories
9.1 Determining the Reference Category
9.2 Using the Webpages and Websites Reference Category
9.3 Online and Print References
Principles of Reference List Entries
9.4 Four Elements of a Reference
9.5 Punctuation Within Reference List Entries
9.6 Accuracy and Consistency in References
Reference Elements (Author, Date, Title, Source)
9.7 Author Element
9.8 Format of the Author Element
9.9 Spelling and Capitalization of Author Names
9.10 Identification of Specialized Roles
9.11 Group Authors
9.12 No Author
9.13 Date Element
9.14 Format of the Date Element
9.15 Updated or Reviewed Online Works
9.16 Retrieval Dates
9.17 No Date
9.18 Title Element
9.19 Format of the Title Element
9.20 Series and Multivolume Works
9.21 Bracketed Descriptions
9.22 No Title
9.23 Source Element
9.24 Format of the Source Element
9.25 Periodical Sources
9.26 Online Periodicals With Missing Information
9.27 Article Numbers
9.28 Edited Book Chapter and Reference Work Entry Sources
9.29 Publisher Sources
9.30 Database and Archive Sources
9.31 Works With Specific Locations
9.32 Social Media Sources
9.33 Website Sources
9.34 When to Include DOIs and URLs
9.35 Format of DOIs and URLs
9.36 DOI or URL Shorteners
9.37 No Source
Reference Variations
9.38 Works in Another Language
9.39 Translated Works
9.40 Reprinted, Republished, or Reissued Works
9.41 Religious and Classical Works
Reference List Format and Order
9.42 Format of the Reference List
9.43 Order of Works in the Reference List
9.44 Order of Surname and Given Name
9.45 Order of Multiple Works by the Same First Author
9.46 Order of Works With the Same Author and Same Date
9.47 Order of Works by First Authors With the Same Surname
9.48 Order of Works With No Author or an Anonymous Author
9.49 Abbreviations in References
 
10. Reference Examples
Author Variations
Date Variations
Title Variations
Source Variations
Textual Works                                                                
10.1 Periodicals 
10.2 Books and Reference Works 
10.3 Edited Book Chapters and Entries in Reference Works 
10.4 Reports and Gray Literature 
10.5 Dissertations and Theses 
10.6 Reviews 
10.7 Informally Published Works 
Software and Tests                                                         
10.8 Computer Software and Mobile Apps  
10.9 Tests, Scales, and Inventories 
Audiovisual Media                                                         
10.10 Audiovisual Works 
10.11 Audio Works 
10.12 Visual Works 
Online Media                                                                  
10.13 Social Media
10.14 Webpages and Websites 
Legal References
10.15 Cases or Court Decisions
10.16 Statutes (Laws and Acts)
10.17 Constitutions and Charters
10.18 Treaties and International Conventions