Conditionals

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ISBN: 9783110171440 | 3110171449
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 12/1/2001

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This book is an extremely detailed and comprehensive examination of conditional sentences in English, using many examples from actual language-use. The syntax and semantics of conditionals (including tense and mood options) and the functions of conditionals in discourse are examined in depth, producing an all-round linguistic view of the subject which contains a wealth of original observations and analyses. Not only linguists specializing in grammar but also those interested in pragmatics and the philosophy of language will find this book a rewarding and illuminating source.

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

Table of contents

vii

Introduction

(18)

Aim and scope of the work

(5)

`Factual' versus `closed' conditions

(2)

Pseudo-Q conditionals

(1)

Categorizations

(2)

The structure of the book

(2)

Terminological preliminaries

(7)

The definition of `conditional (sentence)'

(1)

The terms `situation' and `actualize'

(1)

`P-clause' and `Q-clause'

(1)

P vs [+p] or [-p]; Q vs [+q] and [-q]

(3)

`[Name]-P conditionals' and `[Name]-Q conditionals'

(1)

Terminological confusion

(2)

Symbols and conventions

(1)

Symbols and typeface

(1)

Conventions

(1)

The illustrative material

(3)

Conditional connecting devices

(18)

(2)

Connectors expressing a necessary condition

(1)

Unless

(1)

In case

(4)

Lest

(1)

Even if and only if

(1)

Whether...or

(1)

Supposing, assuming, etc

(1)

Zero-conjunction plus inversion

(1)

Comparative conditionals

(1)

Other clauses with a conditional connotation

(7)

Extraposed subject clauses

(1)

Restrictive relative clauses

(1)

Adverbial time clauses

(1)

Clauses introduced by after (when contrasted with before)

(1)

Before-clauses

(1)

Until-clauses

(1)

{As/so} long as

(1)

The momen((that), as soon as, once

(1)

When-clauses

(4)

Paratactic conditionals

(1)

Conclusion

(2)

Some preliminary terminology

(28)

`Subordinate' clauses

(1)

`Fully integrated' clauses

(1)

Restrictive postscript-P conditionals

(1)

Actualization conditionals

(2)

`(Non)assertoric' vs `(non)assertive' clauses

(1)

Inferential conditionals

(3)

Direct inferentials

(2)

Indirect inferentials

(1)

Implicative conditionals

(2)

Case-specifying-P conditionals

(2)

Purely case-specifying-P conditionals

(1)

Actualization conditionals

(1)

Direct inferentials

(1)

Set-identifying P-clauses

(1)

Conditionals and possible worlds

(4)

Factual vs theoretical P-clauses

(1)

Neutral vs nonneutral theoretical P-clauses

(2)

Types of nonneutral theoretical P-clauses

(1)

Closed-P conditionals

(1)

Open-P conditionals

(1)

Tentative-P conditionals

(1)

Counterfactual-P conditionals

(1)

Irrealis, nonfactual, counterfactual and imaginary P-clauses

(2)

Pseudo-Q conditionals

(1)

`Denied conditionals' vs `conditioned denials'

(1)

Specificational (focusing) conditional structures

(1)

The three canonical tense patterns of conditionals

(1)

Conclusion

(5)

The possible-world typology of conditionals

(46)

Factual-P conditionals

(4)

Past repetitive habits

(1)

Performative P-clauses

(1)

Factuality indirectly following from counterfactuality

(1)

Counterfactual unless and if...not

(1)

Counterfactual `ad absurdum' conditionals

(1)

Other kinds of counterfactual `indirect inferentials'

(1)

Non-case-specifying-P conditionals with factual P-clause

(1)

Seemingly factual P-clauses

(1)

Theoretical-world conditionals

(37)

Definition

(1)

Neutral-P conditionals

(1)

Conditionals with nonspecific reference in the P-caluse

(1)

Gnomic (universal, omnitemporal) Q-clauses

(1)

Conditionals whose Q-clause expresses a present habit

(1)

Set-identifying-P conditionals

(1)

If you say so

(1)

Anchoring-P conditionals

(1)

Imaginary-P conditionals

(1)

Nonneutral theoretical-P conditionals

(1)

Closed-P conditionals

(1)

Definition

(1)

Closed-P conditionals with P relating to another nonfactual world

(1)

Closed P-clauses are echoic

(1)

Functional types of closed-P conditionals

(4)

Modalizers in the Q-clause of a closed-P conditional

(1)

Ostensibly closed P-clauses

(2)

Open-P conditionals

(2)

Tentative-P conditionals

(1)

Definition

(2)

Other forms of tentativeness

(2)

Indirect tentative-P conditionals: the type I wouldn't be surprised if he came

(2)

Counterfactual-P conditionals

(1)

Definition

(1)

Counterfactual patterns

(1)

Counteridentical-P conditionals

100

(2)

Interrogative Q-clauses in possible-world conditionals

102

(1)

The possible world(s) of P and Q

103

(2)

Modalization

105

(2)

The negation effected by counterfactuality

107

(1)

Summary

108

(3)

The use of tenses in possible-world conditionals

111

(86)

The tense model

111

(27)

Time-spheres and sectors

112

(1)

`Full situation' vs `predicated situation'

113

(1)

Time of the predicated situation

114

(1)

`Time of orientation' and `time of the situation'

115

(1)

Temporal domain

116

(1)

`T-relations' vs `W-relations'

117

(1)

T-relations

118

(1)

W-relations

118

(1)

Direct and indirect binding

119

(3)

Sloppy simultaneity

122

(1)

Shift of temporal perspective

123

(1)

`Present Perspective System' vs `Future Perspective System'

124

(9)

The future tense and modality

133

(5)

The use of tenses in factual-P conditionals

138

(4)

P-clauses referring to a past or pre-present repetitive habit

138

(1)

Performative P-clauses

139

(1)

Factual #P-clauses

139

(1)

Counterfactual {unless/if...not}-clauses

140

(1)

Ad absurdum conditionals

140

(1)

Other indirect inferentials

141

(1)

The use of tenses in neutral-P conditionals

142

(3)

The use of tenses in closed-P conditionals

145

(9)

Introduction

145

(1)

Tense combinations in closed-P conditionals

145

(2)

Closed P-clause functioning as Q-clauses

147

(1)

Closed P-clauses using the Future Perspective System

148

(3)

Closed-P inferentials in (free) indirect speech

151

(1)

Closed-P inferentials expressing a past conclusion about an anticipated past P-situation

151

(1)

Closed-P inferentials expressing a past conclusion about an anterior P-situation

152

(1)

Closed P-clauses combining with a Q-clause referring to another possible world

152

(2)

The use of tenses in open-P conditionals

154

(13)

General rule

154

(2)

Open P-clauses referring to the post-present

156

(5)

Open-P inferentials with a P-clause in the past tense

161

(1)

Open-P inferentials with a P-clause in the past perfect

162

(1)

Open-P inferentials with a P-clause in the past perfect and a Q-clause in the conditional perfect

162

(1)

Open P-clause combining with a tentative Q-clause

163

(1)

Open P-clause combining with a counterfactual Q-clause

164

(1)

Open P-clause with `futurate' present tense

164

(2)

Open P-clause using the Present Perspective System and combining with a factual Q-clause?

166

(1)

Open P-clause with shall

166

(1)

The use of tenses in tentative-P conditionals

167

(10)

Introduction

167

(1)

Time reference in tentative-P conditionals

167

(1)

Tentative P-world treated as a past domain

168

(1)

Canonical pattern 2 conditionals

169

(3)

The conditional tense expressing T-posteriority in the Q-clause

172

(1)

Past counterpart of the Present Perspective System in the P-clause

172

(1)

Past counterpart of the Future Perspective System in the P-clause

173

(1)

Tentative P-clauses combining with a factual Q-clause

174

(2)

Pattern 1 conditionals with a tentative-P meaning

176

(1)

The use of tenses in counterfactual-P conditionals

177

(18)

Introduction

177

(1)

Time reference in counterfactual pattern 3 conditionals

177

(6)

Time reference in counterfactual pattern 2 conditionals

183

(1)

Mixing verb forms from pattern 2 and pattern 3 in order to express anteriority

183

(1)

Possible tense combinations in counterfactual-P conditionals

183

(1)

Past/pre-present P-situation + present Q-situation

184

(1)

Past/pre-present P-situation + post-present Q-situation

185

(1)

Past/pre-present P-situation + past/pre-present Q-situation

186

(1)

Extended present P-situation + past/pre-present Q-situation

187

(1)

Both clauses referring to the present or extended present

188

(1)

Extended present P-situation + post-present Q-situation

189

(1)

Post-present P-situation + past/pre-present Q-situation

189

(1)

Post-present P-situation + present Q-situation

190

(1)

Post-present P-situation + post-present Q-situation

190

(1)

Counterfactual P-clauses functioning as Q-clauses

190

(1)

The time of the conclusion

191

(1)

Counterfactual P-clause combining with Q-clause from another possible world

192

(1)

`Had + perfect infinitive' in the Q-clause of pattern 3

192

(1)

The `double pluperfect' in the P-clause of pattern 3

192

(2)

Would have in the P-clause of a pattern 3 conditional

194

(1)

Conclusion

195

(2)

Modalized case-specifying conditionals

197

(34)

The subjunctive

197

(4)

The present subjunctive in the P-clause

197

(1)

The past subjunctive in the P-clause

198

(3)

Modal auxiliaries in the Q-clause

201

(2)

Q-clauses combining with a factual, neutral or closed P-clause

201

(1)

Q-clauses combining with an open-P clause

201

(1)

Q-clauses combining with a tentative or counterfactual P-clause

202

(1)

Ordinary modal auxiliaries in the P-clause

203

(12)

Ordinary modals in closed P-clauses

203

(4)

Ordinary modals in neutral and factual P-clauses

207

(1)

Ordinary modals in open, tentative or counterfactual P-clauses

208

(1)

The ordinary modal use of be to in P-clauses

208

(1)

Ordinary modal uses of will and would in P-clauses

209

(6)

The use of special-P modals in P-clauses

215

(14)

Were to in P-clauses

215

(4)

Should in P-clauses

219

(6)

Be to and be going to in P-clauses

225

(2)

Verb forms after in case and lest

227

(2)

Conclusion

229

(2)

The three canonical tense patterns

231

(26)

Canonical pattern 1 conditionals

231

(2)

Canonical pattern 2 conditionals

233

(14)

Tentative-P conditionals that do not have the pattern 2 form

234

(1)

Nontentative-P pattern 2 conditionals

235

(1)

Pattern 2 as a result of backshifting pattern 1

236

(3)

Pattern 2 with counterfactual P and counterfactual Q

239

(4)

Pattern 2 with counterfactual P and imaginary Q

243

(1)

Pattern 2 with imaginary P and imaginary Q

244

(2)

Pattern 2 with a factual P-clause

246

(1)

Pattern 2 resulting from using would instead of will have

247

(1)

Pattern 2 with modal would in the Q-clause

247

(1)

Canonical pattern 3 conditionals

247

(9)

Pattern 3 resulting from backshifting

248

(1)

Imaginary pattern 3 conditionals

249

(1)

Counterfactual P + imaginary Q

250

(1)

Imaginary P + imaginary Q

251

(4)

Pattern 3 with closed P-clause and putative would in the Q-clause

255

(1)

Conclusion

256

(1)

The relation between the theoretical world and the actual world

257

(20)

Introduction

257

(7)

Epistemic modalizers

264

(1)

The importance of the relation between the theoretical world and the actual world

265

(8)

Counterfactual indirect inferentials

265

(1)

The implicature of counterfactuality of Q in counterfactual-P conditionals

266

(1)

Cancelling of the implicature of counterfactuality of Q

266

(4)

The communicative function of the counterfactual-P conditional

270

(1)

Counterfactual-P conditionals with Q-clause expressing a disposition

270

(2)

Counterfactual-P conditionals with Q-clause expressing advice

272

(1)

Nonassertoric interrogative Q-clauses

273

(2)

Conclusion

275

(2)

A typology of case-specifying P-clauses

277

(42)

Actualization conditionals

277

(7)

Definition

277

(1)

Types of actualization-conditioning P-clauses

277

(1)

Actualization-triggering P-clauses

278

(1)

Preclusive-P actualization conditionals

278

(2)

Actualization-licensing-P conditionals

280

(1)

Nonpreclusive-P actualization conditionals

280

(2)

Actualization conditionals introduced by in case

282

(1)

`Prerequisite-P' vs `restrictive postscript-P'

283

(1)

Inferential conditionals

284

(20)

Definition

284

(1)

Direct inferentials

285

(1)

Standard direct inferentials

285

(3)

Backtrackers

288

(2)

Nonpreclusive-P inferentials

290

(1)

Inferentials involving an inferential bridge between P and Q

290

(1)

The epistemological basis of direct inference

291

(1)

Extrapolating from a necessary truth

291

(1)

Extrapolating from a general pattern

292

(1)

Extrapolating via inferential bridges

292

(1)

Nonextrapolating inferentials

293

(1)

Case-specifying-P conditionals that cannot be standard direct inferentials

294

(1)

Postscript premise-expressing P-clauses

295

(1)

Indirect inferentials

296

(1)

`Ad absurdum' inferentials

296

(5)

Indirect inferentials with counterfactual verb form in the Q-clause

301

(1)

Indirect inferentials with contradictory Q-clause

301

(1)

Assertoric interrogative Q-clause incompatible with factual P-clause

302

(2)

Pseudo-Q inferentials

304

(1)

Purely case-specifying-P conditionals

304

(12)

Purely case-specifying-P conditionals specifying the circumstances under which the Q-situation actualizes

305

(1)

Purely case-specifying P-clauses specifying the case(s) in which Q is true

306

(1)

Purely case-specifying P-clause specifying the circumstances under which the perception of the Q-situation may take place

306

(1)

Purely case-specifying P-clause defining the conditions under which one comes to the conclusion that Q is true

307

(1)

Purely case-specifying P-clause merely specifying the cases in which Q is true

308

(1)

Set-identifying P-clauses

309

(7)

Conclusion

316

(3)

Rhetorical conditionals

319

(48)

Utterance conditionals

319

(11)

Relevance conditionals

320

(5)

Anchoring-P conditionals

325

(1)

Performative-Q conditionals

326

(1)

Metalinguistic-Q conditionals

327

(1)

Nonassertoric-Q utterance conditionals

327

(2)

Commenting-Q utterance conditionals

329

(1)

Comparing conditionals

330

(10)

Definition

330

(1)

Subtypes of comparing conditionals

331

(1)

Similarity-expressing conditionals

331

(1)

Contrastive conditionals

332

(1)

Gradation conditionals

333

(1)

Concessive-P conditionals

334

(4)

Reference to the post-present in comparing conditionals

338

(2)

Commenting-P conditionals

340

(18)

Downtoning-P conditionals

340

(2)

Boosting-P conditionals

342

(1)

Evaluating-P conditionals

343

(1)

Truth-evaluating-P conditionals

344

(3)

Content-evaluating-P conditionals

347

(2)

Presupposition-evaluating-P conditionals

349

(4)

Metalinguistic-P conditionals

353

(2)

Speech condition-defining-P conditionals

355

(1)

Reminding-P conditionals

356

(1)

Hedging-P conditionals

357

(1)

Pseudo-implicative conditionals

358

(1)

Pleonastic conditionals

359

(1)

Conclusion

360

(7)

Summary

360

(4)

Syntactic integration

364

(3)

Syntactically marked conditional structures

367

(54)

Postscript-P conditionals

367

(2)

Conditional anacolutha

369

(1)

Nominal-Q conditionals

369

(1)

Displaced-P conditionals

370

(2)

Stacked-P conditionals

372

(3)

Conditionals with coordinated P-clauses or Q-clauses

375

(1)

Syntactically incomplete conditionals

376

(13)

Covert-P conditionals

376

(1)

The type would {like/love/hate/prefer} to

377

(1)

Would/Should for tentativeness

378

(4)

Q-clauses implying if I were you

382

(1)

Conditionals without real link between the overt P-clause and the Q-clause

382

(1)

Covert-Q conditionals

383

(1)

Conditionals whose Q-clause is deleted to avoid repetition

383

(1)

Covert-Q conditionals of the purely case-specifying-P type

384

(1)

If only

384

(1)

Presupposition-evaluating Q-less P-clauses

385

(1)

Q-less conditionals as indignant exclamations

386

(1)

Q-less if-clauses used for weak manipulation

386

(1)

If you say so

386

(1)

Q-less if-clauses as independent questions

387

(1)

Exclamations of surprise

387

(1)

Pseudo-Q conditionals

387

(2)

Conditionals with a reduced P-clause or Q-clause

389

(2)

Reduced-P conditionals

389

(1)

Reduced-Q conditionals

390

(1)

Implicit P-conditionals

391

(4)

Implicit-Q conditionals

395

(1)

Semi-nominal-P conditionals

396

(5)

Extraposed-P conditionals

396

(4)

Nonextraposed-semi-nominal-P conditionals

400

(1)

Specificational anacolutha

400

(1)

Split conditionals

401

(1)

Paratactic conditionals

401

(7)

Paratactic conditionals with an imperative P-clause + or

401

(2)

Paratactic conditionals with a (pseudo-)imperative P-clause + and

403

(2)

Paratactic conditionals with finite P-clause + finite and/or-clause

405

(2)

Paratactic conditionals with a quantified NP as P-constituent

407

(1)

Paratactic conditionals of the form `NP or NP'

407

(1)

Asyndetic paratactic conditionals

407

(1)

Specificational (focusing) conditional structures

408

(11)

Definition

408

(1)

Type 1: specificational P-clause

409

(1)

Type 2: specificational Q-clause

410

(1)

Type 3: `premodified reduced it-clefts' and variants

411

(4)

Type 4: Q-variable + nonspecificational P-value

415

(2)

Type 5: Q-variable + specificational P-value

417

(2)

Conclusion

419

(2)

Sufficient and/or necessary conditions

421

(26)

Preliminaries

421

(2)

(In)dispensable P-clauses

423

(2)

Utterance-conditionals

425

(1)

A/T-conditions

425

(19)

The definition of `necessary' and `sufficient' A/T-condition

425

(1)

The origins of necessity and/or sufficiency understandings

426

(8)

Sufficiency and/or necessity interpretations of A/T-conditions

434

(1)

P is interpreted as a sufficient and necessary condition for Q

434

(6)

P is interpreted as a sufficient, but not necessary, condition for Q

440

(1)

P is interpreted as a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for Q

441

(2)

P is interpreted as neither necessary nor sufficient for Q

443

(1)

Summary

444

(3)

Uses and interpretations of unless

447

(14)

Syntactically integrated nonirrealis unless-clauses

447

(5)

Syntactically nonintegrated nonirrealis unless-clauses

452

(1)

Unless in irrealis conditionals

453

(6)

Unless in imaginary-P irrealis conditionals

456

(2)

Counterfactual unless

458

(1)

Summary

459

(2)

The meanings and uses of even if

461

(12)

The meaning of even if in implicative conditionals

461

(7)

The expectation understanding plus the nonpreclusive understanding

462

(2)

Scalarity

464

(3)

Even if precludes the implicature that P is necessary for Q

467

(1)

Nonimplicative even if-conditionals

468

(3)

Purely concessive even if-clauses

469

(1)

Commenting even if-clauses

469

(2)

Conclusion

471

(2)

Glossary

473

(40)

References

513

(14)

Author's index

527

(2)

Subject index

529

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Conditionals

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials