Confocal Scanning Optical Microscopy and Related Imaging Systems

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ISBN: 9780124087507 | 0124087507
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 8/29/1996

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This book provides a comprehensive introduction to the field of scanning optical microscopy for scientists and engineers. The book concentrates mainly on two instruments: the Confocal Scanning Optical Microscope (CSOM), and the Optical Interference Microscope (OIM). A comprehensive discussion of the theory and design of the Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscope (NSOM) is also given. the text discusses the practical aspects of building a confocal scanning optical microscope or optical interference microscope, and the applications of these microscopes to phase imaging, biological imaging, and semiconductor inspection and metrology.A comprehensive theoretical discussion of the depth and transverse resolution is given with emphasis placed on the practical results of the theoretical calculations and how these can be used to help understand the operation of these microscopes.

Preface	p. xiii
Introduction
Confocal and Interferometric Microscopy	p. 1
The Standard Optical Microscope	p. 7
Principle of Operation	p. 7
The Point Spread Function	p. 10
Coherent and Incoherent Illumination	p. 13
The Coherent Transfer Function, Line Spread Function, and Spatial Frequencies	p. 17
The Optical Transfer Function	p. 21
The Rayleigh and Sparrow Two-Point Definitions	p. 22
Brightness of the Image	p. 24
Imaging Techniques with the Standard Optical Microscope	p. 26
The Confocal Microscope	p. 31
Principle of Operation	p. 31
Scanning	p. 33
Depth Response	p. 34
The Point Spread Function and Two-Point Resolution	p. 38
History of the CSOM	p. 41
Optical Interference Microscopes	p. 44
Principle of Operation	p. 44
Signal Processing Techniques	p. 48
Depth and Transverse Resolution	p. 51
Comparison of Scanning Optical Microscopes with Other Types of Scanning Microscopes	p. 56
References	p. 63
Instruments
Introduction	p. 67
The Confocal Scanning Laser Microscope	p. 68
The Illumination Source	p. 69
The Objective Lens	p. 71
The Scanning Stage	p. 73
The Intermediate Optics	p. 73
The Pinhole	p. 74
The Detector and Electronics	p. 74
Beam Scanning Techniques	p. 75
Commercial Examples	p. 79
Fiber-Optic Scanning Microscopes	p. 83
Nipkow Disk Scanning Microscopes	p. 84
One-Sided and Two-Sided Designs	p. 84
The Nipkow Disk	p. 86
Illumination of the Disk	p. 89
The Tilted Disk and Optical Isolator	p. 91
The Field Lens, Tube Lens, and Objective Lens	p. 93
The Imaging Path	p. 94
Commercial Examples	p. 95
Slit Microscopes	p. 97
Ophthalmologic Slit Microscopes	p. 97
Bilateral Scanning Slit Microscopes	p. 99
Hybrid Slit Microscopes	p. 101
Confocal Transmission Microscopes	p. 104
Alternative Imaging Configurations	p. 108
Interference Microscopes	p. 110
Interference CSOMs	p. 110
The Michelson Interference Microscope	p. 113
The Linnik Interference Microscope	p. 115
The Mirau Interference Microscope	p. 116
The Tolanski Interference Microscope	p. 119
Near-Field Microscopy	p. 120
The Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscope	p. 120
Applications of the NSOM	p. 131
The Solid Immersion Microscope	p. 133
Conclusion	p. 138
References	p. 139
Depth and Transverse Resolution
Introduction	p. 147
Depth Response of the Confocal Microscope with Infinitesimal Pinholes and Slits	p. 149
Scalar Theory for a Plane Reflector	p. 149
Scalar Theory for Depth Response of a Point Reflector	p. 154
Scalar Theory for Fluorescent Reflectors	p. 157
Scalar Theory for Confocal Slit Microscopes	p. 160
The Effect of Sample and Lens Aberrations on the Depth Response	p. 161
Depth Response of the Confocal Microscope with Finite-Sized Pinholes	p. 165
Approximate Theory for Optimum Pinhole Size	p. 166
Approximate Theory for the Range Resolution vs. Pinhole Size	p. 167
Exact Theory for the Range Resolution vs. Pinhole Size	p. 169
Transverse Response of the Confocal Microscope	p. 175
Transverse Response for Infinitesimal Pinholes	p. 175
Two-Point Resolution	p. 179
Edge and Line Response	p. 180
The Effect of Finite Pinhole Size on the Transverse Resolution	p. 183
Depth and Transverse Resolution of the Interferometric Microscope	p. 189
Scalar Theory for the Depth Response with a Plane Reflector	p. 189
Transverse Resolution	p. 195
The Effect of the Thin-Film Beamsplitter and Mirror Support of the MCM on Signal Levels, Range, and Transverse Resolution	p. 196
The Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscope (NSOM)	p. 206
Attenuation in a Tapered Rod or Fiber	p. 206
The Fields outside the Pinhole	p. 209
The Solid Immersion Microscope (SIM)	p. 212
The Transverse and Longitudinal Magnifications of the SIL	p. 212
The Depth Response of the SIM	p. 214
The Transverse Response of the SIM	p. 216
Conclusion	p. 220
References	p. 220
Phase Imaging
Introduction	p. 225
Phase-Contrast Imaging in Conventional Microscopes	p. 226
Phase-Contrast Imaging in the CSOM	p. 229
Phase Imaging with an Interferometer	p. 229
Electro-optic Phase Imaging	p. 233
The ac Zernike Technique	p. 234
Acousto-optic Phase Imaging	p. 239
Differential Interference Contrast Imaging	p. 247
The Basic Theory of Nomarski Imaging	p. 248
Imaging Modes of a DIC Microscope	p. 250
Polarization-Shifted DIC Imaging	p. 252
Split Detector DIC Imaging	p. 254
Differential Probe Beam DIC Imaging	p. 260
Differential Imaging with an AO Modulator	p. 261
Differential Imaging with an Optical Fiber CSOM	p. 263
Phase Imaging with an Interference Microscope	p. 266
The Integrating Bucket Technique	p. 266
The Fourier Transform Technique	p. 269
Conclusion	p. 272
References	p. 272
Applications
Introduction	p. 277
Semiconductor Metrology	p. 278
Microlithography Measurements	p. 278
Precision, Linearity, and Accuracy in Semiconductor Metrology	p. 279
Critical Dimension Measurements	p. 280
Experimental Results	p. 284
Polarization-Enhanced Imaging of Dense Arrays	p. 286
Calibration	p. 294
Overlay Misregistration Measurements	p. 295
Film Thickness Measurements	p. 300
CARIS and VAMFO	p. 300
Film Thickness Measurements with the Mirau Interference Microscope	p. 307
Biological Imaging	p. 308
Brightfield and Phase Imaging	p. 308
Fluorescence Imaging	p. 311
Two-Wavelength and Two-Photon Fluorescence Imaging	p. 314
Conclusion	p. 316
References	p. 317
Vector Field Theory for Depth and Transverse Resolution of a CSOM
The Depth Response	p. 323
Transverse Response	p. 326
References	p. 330
Index	p. 331
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Confocal Scanning Optical Microscopy and Related Imaging Systems

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