Culture's Consequences : Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations

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ISBN: 9780803973237 | 0803973233
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Copyright: 4/20/2001

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Geert Hofstede has completely rewritten, revised and updated Culture's Consequences for the twenty-first century, he has broadened the book's cross-disciplinary appeal, expanded the coverage of countries examined from 40 to more than 50, reformulated his arguments and a large amount of new literature has been included. The book is structured around five major dimensions: power distance; uncertainty avoidance; individualism versus collectivism; masculinity versus femininity; and long term versus short-term orientation.

From the Preface to the First Edition (1980)

Preface to the Second Edition

xvii

Summary of the Book

xix

Values and Culture

(40)

Summary of This Chapter

(1)

Definitions and Distinctions

(14)

Mental Programs

(3)

Describing Mental Programs in Measurable Terms

(1)

Values

(2)

Measuring Values

(2)

Culture

(2)

National Cultures and Their Stability

(2)

National Character and National Stereotypes

(2)

Cultural Relativism

(1)

Studying Culture

(9)

Comparing Cultures: Changing the Level of Analysis

(2)

Avoiding Ethnocentrism

(2)

The Need for a Multidisciplinary Approach

(2)

Language and Translation

(2)

Matching Samples: Functional Equivalence

(1)

Modal and Marginal Phenomena

(1)

Dimensions of Culture

(10)

The Specific and the General

(2)

Searching for Dimensions of Culture

(2)

Dimensions Versus Typologies

(1)

Five Basic Problems of National Societies

(1)

Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature: Theory Based

(2)

Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature: Empirical

(3)

Culture Change

(2)

The Process of Culture Change

(1)

Culture Change and the IBM Data

(2)

Notes

(5)

Data Collection, Treatment, and Validation

(38)

Summary of This Chapter

(1)

The Research Settings

(8)

The IBM Corporation

(2)

The Use of Attitude Surveys in IBM

(3)

Questionnaire Translation and Survey Administration

(2)

The IBM Survey Database

(1)

A Second Research Setting: IMEDE Business School

(1)

Data Treatment

(16)

Frequency Distributions and Central Tendency Within Groups

(1)

ANOVA: Country, Occupation, Gender, and Age

(1)

Comparing 40 Countries: Matching Occupations

(1)

Extension to 50 Countries Plus Three Regions

(1)

Selecting Stable Questions

(1)

Eclectic Analysis: Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance

(3)

Work Goal Importance Data: Eliminating Acquiescence

(2)

Work Goa1 Importance: Ecological Factor Analysis

(1)

Putting the Four Dimensions Together

(2)

Value Shifts in IBM Between 1967-69 and 1971-73

(1)

Correlations Between Index Scores

(2)

Country Clusters

(1)

Multilingual Countries: Belgium, Switzerland, and Yugoslavia

(2)

Validation

(8)

The Reliability of Country Dimension Scores

(1)

Replicating the IBM Research

(1)

Comparing With Data From Other Sources

(1)

Economic, Geographic, and Demographic Indicators

(1)

Adding a Fifth Dimension

(2)

Studying Organizational Cultures

(2)

Support and Criticisms of the Approach Followed

(1)

Notes

(6)

Power Distance

(66)

Summary of This Chapter

(1)

Inequality and Power Distance

(5)

On Animal and Human Inequality

(1)

Inequality in Society

(2)

Inequality in Organizations

(1)

The Concept of Power Distance

(1)

Power Distance and Human Inequality

(1)

Measuring National Differences in Power Distance in IBM

(7)

Organization of Chapters 3 Through 7

(1)

A Power Distance Index for IBM Countries

(3)

Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation

(2)

Gender Differences in Power Distance

(1)

Country Power Distance Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions

(1)

Validating PDI Against Data From Other Sources

(6)

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey

(1)

PDI Versus Studies of General Values in Society

(4)

Summary of General Connotations of the Power Distance Index Found in Survey Material

(1)

Origins and Implications of Country Power Distance Differences

(26)

The Power Distance Societal Norm

(1)

Power Distance in the Family

(2)

Power Distance, Schools, and Educational Systems

100

(2)

Power Distance in Work and Organization

102

(4)

Power Distance, Worker Participation, and ``Industrial Democracy''

106

(4)

Power Distance and Political Systems

110

(3)

Power Distance and Religion, Ideology, and Theories of Power

113

(2)

Power Distance and Aviation Safety

115

(1)

Predictors of PDI: Latitude, Population Size, and Wealth

115

(2)

Power Distance and Historical Factors: D'Iribarne's Contribution

117

(2)

Power Distance and Historical Factors: The Roman Empire and Colonialism

119

(2)

The Future of Power Distance Differences

121

(2)

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter

123

(14)

Calculating the Power Distance Index by Country

123

(2)

Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation

125

(1)

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey

126

(1)

Results of Other Survey Studies Significantly Correlated With PDI

126

(2)

Indexes at the National Level Significantly Correlated With PDI

128

(4)

PDI Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators

132

(3)

Trends in PDI

135

(2)

Notes

137

(8)

Uncertainty Avoidance

145

(64)

Summary of This Chapter

145

(1)

The Concept of Uncertainty Avoidance

145

(3)

Time, Future, Uncertainty, and Anxiety

145

(1)

Uncertainty Avoidance in Organizations

146

(2)

Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance

148

(1)

Measuring National Differences in Uncertainty Avoidance in IBM

148

(6)

An Uncertainty Avoidance Index for IBM Countries

148

(2)

Uncertainty Avoidance Versus Power Distance

150

(1)

Occupation and Gender Differences in the Scores on the Uncertainty Avoidance Items

151

(2)

Country UAI Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions

153

(1)

Validating UAI Against Data From Other Sources

154

(5)

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey

154

(1)

UAI, Anxiety, and Emotions: Studies by Lynn and Others

155

(2)

UAI and Subjective Well-Being

157

(1)

UAI Versus Studies of General Values in Society

158

(1)

Summary of General Connotations of the Uncertainty Avoidance Index Found in Survey Material

159

(1)

Origins and Implications of Country Uncertainty Avoidance Differences

159

(24)

The Uncertainty Avoidance Societal Norm

159

(2)

Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family

161

(1)

Uncertainty Avoidance Schools, and Educational Systems

162

(1)

UAI and Achievement Motivation: McClelland's Data

163

(2)

Uncertainty Avoidance in the Work Situation

165

(5)

Uncertainty Avoidance and Consumer Behavior

170

(1)

Uncertainty Avoidance and Political Systems

171

(3)

Uncertainty Avoidance and Legislation

174

(1)

Uncertainty Avoidance, Nationalism, and Xenophobia

175

(1)

Uncertainty Avoidance and Religions

176

(1)

Uncertainty Avoidance, Theories, and Games

177

(2)

Predictors of UAI

179

(1)

Uncertainty Avoidance and Historical Factors

179

(2)

The Future of Uncertainty Avoidance Differences

181

(2)

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter

183

(16)

Calculating the Uncertainty Avoidance Index by Country

183

(1)

Calculating Differences in Item Scores by Occupation

183

(1)

Country UAI, Average Age of Respondents, and Other IBM Survey Questions

184

(2)

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey

186

(2)

Studies of Stress and Well-Being

188

(2)

McClelland's Study of Motivation

190

(1)

Results of Other Surveys Correlated With UAI

190

(7)

Indexes at the National Level Correlated With UAI

197

(1)

UAI Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators

198

(1)

Trends in UAI

198

(1)

Notes

199

(10)

Individualism and Collectivism

209

(70)

Summary of This Chapter

209

(1)

The Individual and the Collectivity

209

(5)

Individualism in Society

209

(3)

Individualism in Organizations and Organization Theories

212

(2)

Measuring National Differences in Individualism in IBM

214

(5)

An Individualism Index for Countries in the IBM Sample

214

(1)

Societal Versus Individual Individualism and Collectivism, and Whether Ind and Col Are One or Two Dimensions

215

(1)

Individualism Versus Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance

216

(2)

Individualism and Occupation Gender, and Age

218

(1)

Country Individualism Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions

218

(1)

Validating IDV Against Data From Other Sources

219

(6)

Distinguishing IDV From PDI and GNP/Capita

219

(1)

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey

219

(1)

IDV Versus Schwartz's Values Surveys of Teachers and Students

220

(1)

IDV Versus Smith and Dugan's Analysis of Trompenaars's Data

221

(2)

IDV Versus Inglehart's Analysis of the World Values Survey

223

(1)

IDV Scores and Other Studies of General Values

224

(1)

Summary of Value Connotations of the Individualism Index Found in Surveys and Related Material

225

(1)

Origins and Implications of Country Individualism Differences

225

(30)

The Individualism Societal Norm

225

(1)

Individualism and Collectivism in the Family

225

(6)

Individualism and Collectivism Versus Personality and Behavior

231

(2)

Individualism and Collectivism in Language Use and Group Identity

233

(1)

Individualism and Collectivism, Schools, and Educational Systems

234

(1)

Individualism and Collectivism in the Work Situation

235

(5)

Collectivism and the Applicability of Management Methods

240

(1)

Individualism and Consumer Behavior

241

(1)

Health and Disability in Individualist and Collectivist Societies

242

(1)

Individualism or Collectivism, Political Systems, and Legislation

243

(6)

Individualism and Collectivism, Religions, and Ideas

249

(1)

Predictors of IDV: Wealth and Latitude

250

(3)

Individualism and Historical Factors

253

(1)

The Future of Individualism Differences

254

(1)

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter

255

(18)

Calculating the Individualism Index by Count

255

(2)

Work Goal Dimensions by Occupation

257

(1)

Country IDV Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions

258

(1)

Earlier Studies of Work Goals in IBM

258

(2)

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey

260

(4)

Results of Other Surveys Correlated With IDV

264

(4)

Indexes at the National Level Correlated With IDV

268

(1)

IDV Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators

269

(3)

Trends in IDV

272

(1)

Notes

273

(6)

Masculinity and Femininity

279

(72)

Summary of This Chapter

279

(1)

Sexes, Genders, and Gender Roles

279

(5)

Absolute Statistical, and Social Sex Differences

279

(2)

Gender Differences in Work Goals

281

(3)

Measuring National Differences in Masculinity in IBM

284

(10)

A Masculinity Index for Countries in the IBM Sample

284

(1)

Masculinity and Occupation Gender and Age

285

(5)

Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions

290

(1)

MAS and Work Centrality in IBM

291

(1)

Societal Versus Individual Masculinity and Femininity, and Whether Mas and Fem Are One or Two Dimensions

292

(1)

Masculinity Versus Individualism

293

(1)

Validating MAS Against Data From Other Sources

294

(3)

The Need to Control for Wealth Differences

294

(1)

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey

295

(1)

MAS Scores Versus Other Values Surveys

296

(1)

Summary of Connotations of the Masculinity Index Found in Surveys and Related Material

297

(1)

Origins and Implications of Country Masculinity Differences

297

(38)

The Masculinity Societal Norm

297

(1)

Masculinity and Femininity in the Family

298

(5)

Masculinity, Schools, and Educational Systems

303

(2)

Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles

305

(5)

Masculinity and Consumer Behavior

310

(1)

Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace

311

(6)

Masculinity, Femininity, and Political Priorities

317

(4)

Masculinity, Femininity, and Political Mores

321

(1)

Masculinity and Sexual Behavior

322

(5)

Masculinity, Femininity, and Religion

327

(4)

Masculinity and Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Factors

331

(1)

Masculinity and (Pre)Historical Factors

331

(2)

The Future of Masculinity/Femininity Differences

333

(2)

Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter

335

(6)

Computing MAS for Old and New Cases

335

(1)

Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions

335

(1)

Straight Replications of the IBM Survey

335

(2)

Results of Other Studies Correlated With MAS

337

(2)

MAS Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators

339

(1)

Trends in MAS

340

(1)

Notes

341

(10)

Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation

351

(22)

Summary of This Chapter

351

(1)

East Versus West

351

(4)

Cultural Biases in the Researchers' Minds

351

(1)

The Chinese Value Survey

352

(1)

Long-Term Orientation as a Fifth Dimension

353

(2)

Measuring and Validating National Differences in Long-Term Orientation

355

(4)

A Long-Term Orientation Index for 23 Countries

355

(1)

Replications of the Measurement of Long-Term Orientation

355

(1)

Validating LTO Against Other Studies of Values

355

(3)

LTO and Savings Rates: Read's Study

358

(1)

Summary of Validations and Connotations of the Long-Term Orientation Index Found in Surveys and Related Material

359

(1)

Implications of Country Long-Term Orientation Differences

359

(11)

LTO and Family, Social Relationships, and Work

359

(3)

LTO and Ways of Thinking

362

(3)

LTO and Economic Growth

365

(3)

Gong- and Short-Term Orientation in the Hindu and Muslim Worlds

368

(1)

African Values: A New Dimension?

369

(1)

The Future of Long-Term Orientation

370

(1)

Notes

370

(3)

Cultures in Organizations

373

(50)

Summary of This Chapter

373

(1)

Organizations and National Cultures

373

(18)

There Are No Universal Solutions to Organization and Management Problems

373

(2)

The Functioning of Organizations

375

(3)

Culture and Organization Theories: Nationality Constrains Rationality

378

(3)

Planning, Control, and Accounting

381

(3)

Corporate Governance

384

(1)

Motivation and Compensation

385

(3)

Leadership and Empowerment

388

(2)

Management Development and Organization Development

390

(1)

Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives

391

(1)

Organizational Cultures

391

(24)

The ``Organizational Culture'' Construct

391

(2)

Differences Between Organizational and National Cultures

393

(2)

The IRIC Organizational Culture Research Project

395

(2)

Dimensions of Organizational Cultures

397

(3)

Validating the Practice Dimensions

400

(5)

Organizational Subcultures

405

(3)

The Usefulness of the Organizational Culture Construct

408

(2)

How Universal Are the Six Organizational Culture Dimensions?

410

(1)

Individual Perceptions of Organizational Cultures

411

(2)

Implications of the Level of Analysis: Gardens, Bouquets, and Flowers

413

(1)

Occupational Cultures

414

(1)

Notes

415

(8)

Intercultural Encounters

423

(38)

Summary of This Chapter

423

(1)

Intercultural Communication and Cooperation

423

(6)

General Principles

423

(2)

Language and Discourse

425

(1)

Culture Shock and Expatriate Failure

425

(2)

Training in Intercultural Competence

427

(2)

Political Issues

429

(11)

Minorities, Migrants, and Refugees

429

(2)

International Politics and International Organizations

431

(4)

Intercultural Negotiations

435

(2)

Economic Development, Nondevelopment, and Development Cooperation

437

(3)

Multinational Business

440

(11)

The Functioning of Multinational Business Organizations

440

(5)

International Acquisitions, Mergers, and Joint Ventures

445

(3)

International Marketing, Advertising, and Consumer Behavior

448

(3)

Schools, Tourism, and a Look Ahead

451

(3)

Intercultural Encounters in Schools

451

(1)

Intercultural Encounters in Tourism

452

(1)

The Influence of New Technology

453

(1)

Cultural Relativism, Convergence, and Divergence

453

(1)

Notes

454

(7)

Using Culture Dimension Scores in Theory and Research

461

(64)

Summary of This Chapter

461

(1)

Applications of the Dimensional Model

461

(5)

The Fortunes of Continued Research in Six Areas

461

(1)

Fields of Application

462

(1)

Replications and Their Pitfalls

463

(1)

Extensions to New Countries

464

(1)

Using the Dimensional Model as a Paradigm

465

(1)

Closing Remarks

466

(1)

Notes

466

(1)

Appendixes

Appendix 1 Questions From the IBM Attitude Survey Questionnaire Referred to in This Book

467

(8)

Appendix 2 Country Scores on A, B, and C Questions (except A5-A32 and C1-C8)

475

(8)

Appendix 3 Standardized Country and Occupation Scores for Work Goals (questions A5-18 and C1-C8)

483

(8)

Appendix 4 Replicating the IBM-Style Cross-National Survey

491

(8)

Appendix 5 Summary of Country Index Scores (including additions)

499

(4)

Appendix 6 Summary of Significant Correlations of Country Index Scores With Data From Other Sources

503

(18)

Appendix 7 Two Case Studies From the IRIC Organizational Cultures Research Project

521

(2)

Appendix 8 The Author's Values

523

(2)

References

525

(44)

Name Index

569

(16)

Subject Index

585

(11)

About the Author

596

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Culture's Consequences : Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations

Summary

Table of Contents

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