Derivation and Use of Environmental Quality

A balanced, comprehensive overview of Environmental Quality Standards (EQS), Derivation and Use of Environmental Quality and Human Health Standards for Chemical Substances in Water and Soiladdresses the selection and prioritization of substances for standard derivation. With integrated content and up-to-date information on assessment of regulations that affect the derivation and use of EQS, it examines the derivation of these standards and their implementation to protect human health and the environment. The book is based on contributions from thirty-five scientists, regulators, and policy makers from eleven countries with individual expertise across disciplines such as risk assessment, environmental, health, economic, and social sciences. These scientists summarize current knowledge on aquatic and terrestrial environmental quality standards, placing these standards in a wider socioeconomic and regulatory context. The book explains how to derive environmental standards that are defensible from a scientific and socioeconomic perspective. Using multidisciplinary techniques applicable to water, sediments, and soils; the text demonstrates how to select the best form and derivation method relative to individual environmental standards. The book presents an in-depth examination of when, where, and how to implement environmental standards based on the social and economic context. It includes detailed coverage of technical approaches that shed light on the derivation and implementation of EQSs. It also identifies future research that will help to underpin the science of environmental and human health standards.

List of Figures	p. xiii
List of Tables	p. xv
Acknowledgments	p. xvii
About the Editors	p. xix
Workshop Participants	p. xxi
Introduction	p. 1
Background	p. 1
Workshop Objectives and Topics	p. 2
References	p. 4
Setting Environmental Standards within a Socioeconomic Context	p. 5
Introduction	p. 5
Social and Economic Context	p. 5
Economic Analysis	p. 5
Social Aspects of Standard Setting	p. 6
Typological Issues in Understanding Standards	p. 6
Introduction	p. 6
Why Does Terminology Matter?	p. 7
Why Are Different Types of Standards Necessary?	p. 8
Standards for Different Purposes	p. 8
Selecting the Right Standard for the Job	p. 8
Framework for Deriving a New Standard	p. 11
Problem Formulation	p. 12
Why Is a Standard Needed?	p. 13
Who Needs to Be Involved?	p. 13
Constraints	p. 15
Social and Economic Questions	p. 16
Stakeholder Analyses	p. 17
Check Rejection Criteria	p. 17
Developing a Specification	p. 18
Scope	p. 19
Form of the Standard	p. 19
Monitoring	p. 20
Consideration of Costs and Benefits	p. 21
Deriving a Standard	p. 22
Integrating Scientific, Social, and Economic Factors	p. 23
Understanding the Relationship between Exposure and Effects	p. 23
Implementation of Standards	p. 25
Meeting a Standard	p. 26
Allowing Flexibility	p. 26
Taking Socioeconomic Factors into Account	p. 27
Importance of Feedback	p. 28
Some Final Thoughts	p. 28
References	p. 29
How Should an Environmental Standard Be Implemented?	p. 31
Introduction	p. 31
Types and Uses of Standards	p. 31
Essential Features that Allow Implementation of a Standard	p. 36
Using Standards to Guide Decision Making	p. 36
Absolute Limits versus Ideal Standards	p. 36
ôIdeal Standardö	p. 37
Compliance Issues	p. 38
Application of Ideal Standards to Other Media	p. 41
Other Implementation Issues	p. 43
Geographical Scope of Standards	p. 43
Background Levels	p. 43
Forcing Technological Innovation	p. 44
Verification and Review of Standards	p. 44
Implementation Analysis Report	p. 45
Notes	p. 46
References	p. 46
Water and Sediment EQS Derivation and Application	p. 47
Introduction	p. 47
Specification and Recording of EQS Derivation Procedures	p. 50
Selection and Evaluation of Data for Deriving Water and Sediment EQSs	p. 51
Selection and Prioritization of Substances for EQS Setting	p. 51
Types of Data	p. 51
Species Selection	p. 51
Test Endpoints	p. 51
Algal Tests	p. 54
Sediment-Dwelling Organisms	p. 55
Data Validity	p. 55
Data Requirements of Different EQS Assessment Methods	p. 55
Use of Toxic Body Burdens for Assessing Sediment Toxicity	p. 61
Derivation of EQSs	p. 61
Available Methods	p. 61
Standard Test Species Approach	p. 62
Species Sensitivity Distributions	p. 64
Predictions from Model Ecosystem (Microcosm and Mesocosm) Data	p. 66
Selection of the Most Appropriate PNEC or EQS Derivation Method	p. 67
Corrections for Bioavailability	p. 67
Short- (MAC) and Long-Term (AA) EQSs and Implications of Exceedance	p. 68
Marine and Freshwater EQS Derivation	p. 69
Need for Separate Marine and Freshwater Standards	p. 69
Marine Toxicity Data Requirements	p. 72
Substitution of Freshwater for Marine Data (and Vice Versa)	p. 72
Use of Microcosm, Mesocosm, and Field Data	p. 72
Introduction to Microcosm and Mesocosm Tests	p. 72
Use of Microcosm, Mesocosm, and Field Studies for EQS Setting	p. 73
Use of Existing Studies	p. 73
Use of New Microcosm and Mesocosm Studies	p. 74
Calculated Estimates of Toxicity	p. 74
Metals	p. 76
Identifying Background Concentrations	p. 76
Modifying Metal EQSs to Account for Background	p. 78
Other Substances	p. 78
Protection of the Human and Wildlife Food Chains from Aquatic Contaminants	p. 79
Protection of the Food Chain - Humans and Wildlife	p. 79
Humans	p. 79
Wildlife	p. 80
Protection of Drinking Water	p. 81
Protection of Recreational Water	p. 81
Consideration of Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Reproductive Toxicity, Including Endocrine Disruption	p. 82
Background to Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Reproductive Toxicity	p. 82
Carcinogens, Mutagens, and Aquatic Organisms	p. 83
Population Perspective	p. 83
Deriving PNECs for Genotoxins	p. 83
Genotoxicity Assessment Methods	p. 84
Reproductive Toxins, Endocrine Disrupters, and Aquatic Organisms	p. 84
Population Perspective	p. 84
Reproductive Toxicity and PNEC Derivation	p. 84
Reproductive and Sexual Development Toxicity Assessment Tools	p. 85
Validation, Implementation, and Review of Aquatic EQSs	p. 87
Validation of Aquatic EQSs	p. 87
Validation of Correct Derivation	p. 87
Validation of EQS in the Field	p. 87
Validation Procedures	p. 88
Use of Microcosm, Mesocosm, and Field Studies for Validation Purposes	p. 89
Criteria for Triggering a Review of an Established EQS	p. 90
Conclusions	p. 92
Recommendations	p. 94
Notes	p. 95
References	p. 95
Derivation and Use of Environmental Quality and Human Health Standards for Chemical Substances in Groundwater and Soil	p. 105
Introduction and Scope	p. 105
Starting Point for the Development of a Terrestrial or Groundwater Standard	p. 106
Further Considerations in Soil Quality Standard Setting	p. 109
Prioritization	p. 109
Exposure Models - Use in Standard Setting	p. 110
Ecological Endpoints	p. 113
Relevance and Reliability of Data	p. 114
Selection of Data prior to Standard Setting for Data-Rich Substances	p. 114
Use of Surrogate Data for Data-Poor Substances	p. 115
Assessment Factors - Extrapolation and Soil Quality Standard Derivation	p. 115
Availability and Bioavailability	p. 117
Ecological Risk Assessment	p. 117
Human Health Risk Assessment	p. 118
Groundwater	p. 119
Background Concentrations	p. 119
Added Soil Quality Standard Approach	p. 120
Refinement of the Total Soil Quality Standard Approach	p. 121
SSD Approach	p. 121
Correcting the Quality Standard for Differences in Chemical Availability	p. 122
Correcting the Quality Standard for Differences in Bioavailability	p. 122
Verification of the Standard	p. 122
How to Validate?	p. 123
Conclusions	p. 124
Note	p. 125
References	p. 125
Workshop Conclusions and Recommendations	p. 127
Index	p. 133
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Derivation and Use of Environmental Quality and Human Health Standards for Chemical Substances in Water and Soil

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