Diplomacy and Deception: Secret History of

During the Soviet period the USSR conducted diplomatic relations with incumbent regimes while simultaneously cultivating and manipulating communist movements in those same countries. The Chinese case offers a particularly interesting example of this dual policy, for when the Chinese Communists came to power in 1949, their discovery of the nature of Moscow's imperial designs on Chinese territory sowed distrust between the two revolutionary powers and paved the way to the Sino-Soviet split.

Drawing on newly available documents from archives in China, Taiwan, Russia, and Japan, this study examines secret agreements signed by Moscow and the Peking government in 1924 and confirmed by a Soviet-Japanese convention in 1925. These agreements essentially allowed the Bolsheviks to reclaim most of tsarist Russia's concessions and privileges in China, including not only Imperial properties but also Outer Mongolia, the Chinese Eastern Railway, the Boxer Indemnity, and the right of extraterritoriality. Each of these topics is analyzed in this volume, and translations of the

List of Documents

xi

(1)

List of Maps

xii

(1)

List of Abbreviations

xiii

(2)

Acknowledgments

xv

(2)

Technical Note

xvii

Introduction

1

(22)

The Diplomatic Situation Prior to 1919

2

(2)

The Chinese Delegation's Proposals

4

(3)

Wilson's Compromise Solution

7

(5)

The Versailles Treaty's Shantung Resolutions

12

(3)

The May Fourth Movement

15

(2)

The Versailles Treaty and Soviet Russia

17

(1)

Conclusions

18

(1)

Notes

19

(4)

1. The Opening of Sino-Soviet Diplomatic Negotiations

23

(32)

The Karakhan Manifesto

24

(3)

The Bolsheviks and the Open Door Policy

27

(5)

The FER and the Open Door Policy

32

(2)

Ignatii Iurin's Mission to Peking

34

(1)

The Second Karakhan Manifesto

35

(2)

China's Negotiations with the FER

37

(3)

China's Negotiations with Soviet Russia

40

(4)

Iurin Uses the CER as Bait

44

(5)

Conclusions

49

(1)

Notes

50

(5)

2. The Origins of the United Front Policy

55

(30)

Early Soviet Attempts to Ally with Sun Yat-sen

56

(2)

Soviet Motives for Forming the United Front

58

(2)

Sun Yat-sen's Nationalism

60

(3)

Sun Yat-sen's Changing Views Toward Outer Mongolia

63

(1)

Sun Yat-sen's Support for Soviet Control of the CER

64

(3)

Sun Yat-sen and the United Front Policy

67

(1)

Sun Yat-sen and the Three People's Principles

68

(3)

The Kuomintang's Foreign Policy Platform

71

(4)

Conclusions

75

(2)

Notes

77

(8)

3. Outer Mongolia Enters the Communist Bloc

85

(30)

The October Revolution and Outer Mongolia

86

(2)

The Soviet-Mongolian Treaty of November 5, 1921

88

(2)

Aleksandr Paikes' Mission to Peking

90

(4)

Paikes Claims the Unequal Treaties Are Valid

94

(4)

Lev Karakhan's Mission to China

98

(2)

The March 14, 1924 Secret Protocol

100

(4)

Karakhan Delays the Sino-Soviet Conference

104

(2)

Outer Mongolia Joins the Communist Bloc

106

(3)

Conclusions

109

(1)

Notes

110

(5)

4. Assertion of Soviet Control over the Chinese Eastern Railway

115

(28)

Early Sino-Soviet Diplomacy over the CER

116

(2)

The 1921-22 Washington Conference

118

(2)

Karakhan Proposes Joint Management of the CER

120

(4)

Karakhan's Pressure Tactics

124

(3)

The September 20, 1924 Secret Agreement

127

(4)

The January 20, 1925 Soviet-Japanese Convention

131

(2)

Soviet Imperialism and the May Thirtieth Movement

133

(3)

Conclusions

136

(2)

Notes

138

(5)

5. China's Revocation of the Boxer Indemnity

143

(16)

The Boxer Indemnity Through 1922

144

(1)

The Bolsheviks and the Boxer Indemnity

145

(2)

Russia's Boxer Indemnity in Renewed

147

(3)

Karakhan Adopts the 1901 and 1904 Boxer Protocols

150

(2)

"To Use Barbarians to Govern Barbarians"

152

(3)

Conclusions

155

(1)

Notes

156

(3)

6. The Restoration of Russian Territorial Concessions

159

(18)

The Tsarist Territorial Concessions in China

160

(1)

The USSR Reclaims Tsarist Concessions

161

(3)

Reinstating the Boxer Protocols

164

(2)

Soviet Territorial Concessions in China

166

(3)

Soviet Concessions and the May Thirtieth Movement

169

(3)

The Anglo-Russian Proxy War in China

172

(2)

Conclusions

174

(1)

Notes

174

(3)

7. The Resumption of Russian Extraterritoriality

177

(18)

Peking Eliminates the White Russians' Extraterritoriality

178

(2)

The May 31, 1924 Sino-Soviet Treaty

180

(1)

The USSR's Nationalization of Foreign Trade

181

(3)

Two Case Studies of Soviet Extraterritoriality

184

(3)

Soviet Diplomats Retain Extraterritoriality

187

(1)

Great Britain and the United States Abolish Extraterritoriality

188

(3)

Conclusions

191

(1)

Notes

192

(3)

8. Soviet Foreign Policy and the Chinese Communist Party

195

(36)

The Formation of the Chinese Communist Party

196

(2)

The Cominterm Orders the CCP to Join the United Front

198

(3)

The Open Door Policy and Outer Mongolia

201

(4)

The CCP Supports Outer Mongolian Autonomy

205

(2)

The CCP and the United Front Policy

207

(3)

The CCP and the Workers' Movement

210

(3)

China's 1925-27 Revolution and the Cold War

213

(4)

The Defeat of the United Front Policy

217

(4)

Conclusions

221

(1)

Notes

222

(9)

Conclusions

231

(21)

Status Quo and Outer Mongolian Independence

232

(2)

Forming a Soviet-KMT Alliance

234

(2)

The Chiang-Stalin Secret Pact

236

(2)

Stalin Retakes the Chinese Eastern Railway

238

(2)

Soviet Territorial Concessions and Extraterritoriality

240

(2)

"Face" in Sino-Soviet Diplomacy

242

(3)

Soviet Secret Diplomacy and the CCP

245

(2)

The Sino-Soviet Monolith

247

(1)

Notes

248

(4)

Appendix A: The 1925 Soviet-Japanese Secret Agreement on Bessarabia

252

(7)

Appendix B: Essential Information About the Communist Party's Secret Work

259

(23)

Appendix C: The March 23, 1935 Soviet-Japanese Secret Protocol

282

(4)

Bibliography

286

(25)

Index

311

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Diplomacy and Deception: Secret History of Sino-Soviet Diplomatic Relations, 1917-27: Secret History of Sino-Soviet Diplomatic Relations, 1917-27

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