Discovering Language The Structure of Modern

This text provides students with the basic descriptive knowledge they are required to master before moving on to more advanced study. The book is organized under thematic headings, which are thoroughly cross-referenced, enabling students and teachers to use the book as required--either as a course text or to help with individual aspects of language. Each section includes an introduction, worked examples, "in context" sections relating the topic to real text examples, suggestions for further reading and analysis and a summary.

List of Figures

xii

List of Tables

xiii

Series Preface

xv

Acknowledgements

xvii

Introduction

1

(7)

1 Phonetics

8

(36)

1.1 Introduction: human speech sounds

8

(2)

1.2 Vocal apparatus

10

(5)

1.2.1 Lungs to larynx

11

(1)

1.2.2 The oral and nasal cavities

12

(3)

1.3 Segments of sound

15

(2)

1.3.1 Consonants versus vowels

16

(1)

1.4 Consonants

17

(12)

1.4.1 Place of articulation

18

(3)

1.4.2 Manner of articulation

21

(2)

1.4.3 Voicing

23

(2)

1.4.4 English consonants

25

(4)

1.5 Vowels

29

(8)

1.5.1 The vowel chart

29

(3)

1.5.2 Front vowels

32

(1)

1.5.3 Back vowels

33

(1)

1.5.4 Central vowels

34

(1)

1.5.5 Diphthongs

35

(1)

1.5.6 Summary of English vowel sounds

36

(1)

1.6 Larger units

37

(6)

1.6.1 Syllables in English

38

(2)

1.6.2 Consonant clusters

40

(1)

1.6.3 Word stress

41

(2)

1.7 Further reading

43

(1)

2 Phonology

44

(27)

2.1 Introduction: English speech sounds

44

(2)

2.2 Phonemes

46

(6)

2.2.1 Minimal pairs

47

(2)

2.2.2 Allophones

49

(1)

2.2.3 Free variation

50

(2)

2.3 Connected speech

52

(8)

2.3.1 Assimilation

53

(4)

2.3.2 Elision

57

(2)

2.3.3 Insertion

59

(1)

2.4 Intonation and stress

60

(10)

2.4.1 Utterance stress

61

(3)

2.4.2 Tones

64

(3)

2.4.3 Tone groups

67

(2)

2.4.4 Discourse intonation

69

(1)

2.5 Further reading

70

(1)

3 Word

71

(31)

3.1 Introduction: word structures and classes

71

(1)

3.2 Morphology

72

(4)

3.2.1 Free and bound morphemes

73

(2)

3.2.2 Allomorphs

75

(1)

3.3 Word formation

76

(7)

3.3.1 Inflection

77

(3)

3.3.2 Derivation

80

(2)

3.3.3 Compounding

82

(1)

3.4 Lexical word classes

83

(9)

3.4.1 Noun

83

(3)

3.4.2 Verb

86

(3)

3.4.3 Adjective

89

(1)

3.4.4 Adverb

90

(2)

3.5 Grammatical word classes

92

(9)

3.5.1 Pronoun

93

(3)

3.5.2 Determiner

96

(1)

3.5.3 Preposition

97

(2)

3.5.4 Conjunction

99

(1)

3.4.5 Auxiliary verb

99

(2)

3.6 Further reading

101

(1)

4 Phrase

102

(22)

4.1 Introduction: structures larger than words

102

(1)

4.2 Phrase structures

103

(20)

4.2.1 Noun phrase (NP)

104

(12)

4.2.2 Verb phrase (VP)

116

(5)

4.2.3 Adjective phrase (AjP)

121

(1)

4.2.4 Adverb phrase (AvP)

122

(1)

4.2.5 Prepositional phrase (PP)

122

(1)

4.3 Further reading

123

(1)

5 Clause and Sentence

124

(32)

5.1 Introduction: idealised structures

124

(1)

5.2 Clause functions

125

(12)

5.2.1 Subject (S)

126

(1)

5.2.2 Predicator (P)

127

(1)

5.2.3 Object (0)

128

(1)

5.2.4 Complement (C)

129

(5)

5.2.5 Adverbial (A)

134

(3)

5.3 Form and function relationships

137

(14)

5.3.1 Simple clause structures

138

(3)

5.3.2 Coordinated structures

141

(3)

5.3.3 Subordinate structures

144

(7)

5.4 Information structure

151

(3)

5.4.1 Cleft sentences/fronting

151

(2)

5.4.2 Transformations

153

(1)

5.5 Further reading

154

(2)

6 Semantics

156

(26)

6.1 Introduction: lexical meaning

156

(2)

6.2 Multiple meaning

158

(5)

6.2.1 Homonymy

159

(3)

6.2.2 Polysemy

162

(1)

6.3 Lexical description

163

(5)

6.3.1 Semantic features

164

(2)

6.3.2 Semantic fields

166

(2)

6.4 Sense relations

168

(7)

6.4.1 Synonymy

169

(1)

6.4.2 Hyponymy

170

(2)

6.4.3 Meronymy

172

(1)

6.4.4 Oppositeness (antonymy)

172

(3)

6.5 Semantic contexts

175

(5)

6.5.1 Collocation

176

(2)

6.5.2 Connotation

178

(2)

6.6 Further reading

180

(2)

7 Theory, Text and Context

182

(20)

7.1 Introduction: beyond the sentence

182

(1)

7.2 Cohesion

183

(5)

7.2.1 Repetition

184

(1)

7.2.2 Reference

184

(1)

7.2.3 Substitution

185

(1)

7.2.4 Ellipsis

185

(1)

7.2.5 Conjunction

186

(1)

7.2.6 Lexical cohesion

187

(1)

7.3 Conversation

188

(2)

7.3.1 Turn-taking

188

(1)

7.3.2 The cooperative principle

189

(1)

7.4 Context

190

(2)

7.4.1 Deixis

190

(1)

7.4.2 Metafunctions

191

(1)

7.5 Design features of human language

192

(3)

7.5.1 Arbitrariness

192

(1)

7.5.2 Duality or patterning

193

(1)

7.5.3 Open-endedness

193

(1)

7.5.4 Displacement/stimulus freedom

194

(1)

7.6 Dimensions of language

195

(1)

7.6.1 Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships

195

(1)

7.6.2 Diachronic and synchronic dimensions of study

196

(1)

7.7 Language system and use

196

(4)

7.7.1 Langue and parole, competence and performance

197

(1)

7.7.2 Reference and sense

198

(1)

7.7.3 Sign, signifier and signified

198

(1)

7.7.4 Denotation and connotation

199

(1)

7.7.5 The Sapir—Whorf effect

200

(1)

7.8 Further reading

200

(2)

Bibliography

202

(3)

Exercises and Questions

205

(6)

Chapter 1 Phonetics

205

(1)

Chapter 2 Phonology

206

(2)

Chapter 3 Word

208

(1)

Chapter 4 Phrase

208

(1)

Chapter 5 Clause and sentence

209

(1)

Chapter 6 Semantics

210

(1)

Answers to the exercises

211

(8)

Appendix: Syntactic Tree Diagrams

219

(5)

Glossary

224

(21)

Index

245

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Discovering Language The Structure of Modern English

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials