The Earth's Ionosphere

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ISBN: 9780120884254 | 0120884259
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 5/5/2009

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Weather in the ionosphere can threaten satellite communication and navigation that depend on waves that must traverse this commonly turbulent region of the atmosphere. Understanding and predicting this turbulence rests on comprehending the very topics of this book: the plasma physics and electrodynamics of the system.

Preface	p. xiii
Introductory and Background Material	p. 1
Scope and Goals of the Text	p. 1
Historical Perspective	p. 1
Organization and Limitations	p. 2
Structure of the Neutral Atmosphere and the Main Ionosphere	p. 4
D-Region Fundamentals	p. 10
The Earth's Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere	p. 16
References	p. 25
Fundamentals of Atmospheric, Ionospheric, and Magnetospheric Plasma Dynamics	p. 27
The Basic Fluid Equations	p. 27
Conservation of Mass	p. 28
Equation of State	p. 31
Momentum Equation for the Neutral Fluid	p. 31
Momentum Equations for the Plasma	p. 35
The Complete Equation Sets	p. 36
Steady-State Ionospheric Plasma Motions Due to Applied Forces	p. 39
Generation of Electric Fields	p. 47
Electric Field Mapping	p. 48
Elements of Magnetospheric Physics	p. 54
The Guiding Center Equations and the Adiabatic Invariants	p. 54
Magnetohydrodynamics	p. 61
Are Ionospheric Electric Fields Real?	p. 68
Coordinate Systems	p. 69
References	p. 70
Dynamics and Electrodynamics of the Equatorial Zone	p. 71
Motions of the Equatorial F Region: The Database	p. 71
The Equatorial F-Region Dynamo	p. 76
E-Region Dynamo Theory and the Daytime Equatorial Electrojet	p. 89
Further Complexities of Equatorial Electrodynamics	p. 99
The Prereversal Enhancement	p. 99
High-Latitude Effects on the Equatorial Electric Field	p. 102
Feedback Between Electrodynamics and Thermospheric Winds	p. 113
Mesospheric and Lower Thermospheric Dynamics	p. 119
Atmospheric Winds in the Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere	p. 119
A Primer on Turbulence and the Turbopause	p. 122
References	p. 125
Equatorial Plasma Instabilities and Mesospheric Turbulence	p. 131
F-Region Plasma Instabilities: Observations	p. 131
Development and Initiation of Convective Equatorial Ionospheric Storms (a.k.a. Equatorial Spread F)	p. 142
Linear Theory of the Rayleigh-Taylor Instability	p. 142
The Generalized Rayleigh-Taylor Process: Electric Fields, Neutral Winds, and Horizontal Gradients	p. 149
The Seeding of Convective Ionospheric Storms by Gravity Waves	p. 152
Role of Velocity Shear in Convective Ionospheric Storms	p. 158
Summary of Linear Theory Results	p. 159
Nonlinear Theories of Convective Ionospheric Storms	p. 160
Two-Dimensional Computer Simulations	p. 160
Simulations Including Seeding and Shear	p. 164
Summary of Nonlinear Theory Results	p. 168
Linkage of Large and Small Scales in CEIS	p. 169
Evidence for a Diffusive Subrange	p. 169
The Diffusive Subrange	p. 171
Toward a Unified Theory for the Convective Equatorial Ionospheric Storm Spectrum	p. 173
Convective Equatorial Ionospheric Storm Summary	p. 174
E-Region Plasma Instabilities: The Observational Data Base	p. 175
Linear Theories of Electrojet Instabilities	p. 187
Nonlinear Theories of Electrojet Instabilities	p. 200
Two-Step Theories for Secondary Waves	p. 200
On the Observations That the Phase Velocity of Type I Equatorial Waves Is Independent of Angle	p. 202
Nonlinear Gradient Drift Theories	p. 203
Nonlinear Studies of Farley-Buneman (FB) Waves	p. 207
D-Region Turbulence	p. 211
Future Directions	p. 213
References	p. 213
Hydro-and Electrodynamics of the Midlatitude Ionosphere	p. 221
Introduction to the Tropical and Midlatitude Ionospheres	p. 221
Background Material	p. 221
On the Height of the Daytime F2 Layer	p. 226
Equations Including Vertical Flux Without Winds or Electric Fields	p. 227
F-Layer Solutions with Production, Diffusion, and Flux	p. 229
More General Nighttime Solutions	p. 230
The Appleton Anomaly: An Equatorial Electric Field Effect	p. 232
The Corotation Electric Field and Formation of the Plasmasphere	p. 234
Electric Fields in the Tropical and Midlatitude Zone	p. 237
Electric Field Measurements	p. 237
Neutral Wind Effects	p. 242
Combined Effects of Electric Fields and Neutral Winds	p. 244
Complexities of the Real Nighttime Tropical Ionosphere	p. 245
The Transition Zone Between Mid-and High Latitudes	p. 254
Midlatitude Lower Thermosphere Dynamics	p. 256
Tidal Effects	p. 256
Wind Profiles	p. 261
References	p. 264
Waves and Instabilities at Midlatitudes	p. 267
Mesoscale Vertical Organization of Ionospheric Plasma: General Considerations	p. 267
Oscillations of the Neutral Atmosphere	p. 268
Role of Gravity Waves and Tides in Creating Vertical Ionospheric Structure	p. 279
Effects of Particle Precipitation at Midlatitudes	p. 286
Horizontal Structure in the Midlatitude Ionosphere	p. 289
Midlatitude F-Region Plasma Instabilities	p. 293
F-Region Plasma Instabilities in the Equatorial Anomaly (Equatorial Arc) Region	p. 293
Local Midlatitude F-Region Plasma Instabilities: A New Process	p. 302
Linear Theory for the Perkins Instability	p. 308
Midlatitude E-Region Instabilities	p. 312
Radiowave Observations of Nighttime Midlatitude E-Region Instabilities	p. 312
Multiexperimental Observations of Midlatitude Structures	p. 319
Midlatitude E-Region Instabilities: Difficulties with Simple Explanations	p. 321
The Effect of a Wind Shear: The Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability as a Source of Q-P Echoes	p. 323
The Role of Horizontal Structure: Amplification by the Cowling Effect	p. 324
Spontaneous Structuring by the Es-Layer Instability	p. 328
Coupling of Es Layers and the F Layer	p. 330
The Wavelength Limiting Effect and Small-Scale Instabilities	p. 333
Wind-Driven Thermal Instabilities	p. 334
References	p. 336
Dynamics and Electrodynamics of the Mesosphere	p. 343
Noctilucent Clouds (NLC) and the Solstice Temperature Anomaly	p. 343
Gravity Wave Breaking	p. 346
The Polar Summer Mesosphere: A Wave-Driven Refrigerator	p. 348
New Observations of NLC and Related Phenomena	p. 350
Polar Mesosphere Summer Echoes (PMSE)	p. 353
The Role of Charged Ice	p. 360
On the Possible Relationship Between PMSE, NLC, and Atmospheric Change	p. 362
Upward-Propagating Lightning	p. 363
Nonlinear Mesospheric Waves	p. 366
Observations	p. 366
Analogy to a Hydraulic Jump	p. 368
Nonlinear Simulation of Mesospheric Bores	p. 369
References	p. 373
High-Latitude Electrodynamics	p. 379
Electrical Coupling Between the Ionosphere, Magnetosphere, and Solar Wind	p. 379
General Relationships	p. 379
A Qualitative Description of Convection for Southward IMF	p. 381
Energy Transfer	p. 387
Additional Complexities	p. 392
Observations of Ionospheric Convection	p. 395
Observations During Southward IMF	p. 396
Observations During Northward IMF	p. 400
Simple Models of Convection in the Magnetosphere	p. 403
Models for Southward IMF	p. 404
Models for Northward IMF	p. 411
Empirical and Analytical Representations of High-Latitude Convection	p. 412
Observations of Field-Aligned Currents	p. 417
Current Patterns for a Southward IMF	p. 419
Current Patterns for a Northward IMF	p. 421
Dependence on Magnetic Activity, IMF, and Season	p. 422
Horizontal Currents at High Latitudes	p. 423
References	p. 429
Ionospheric Response to Electric Fields	p. 433
Ionospheric Effects of Parallel Plasma Dynamics	p. 433
Ionospheric Composition at High Latitudes	p. 433
Hydrodynamic Theory of the Polar Wind	p. 435
Ionospheric Effects of Perpendicular Plasma Dynamics	p. 440
The Role of Horizontal Transport	p. 440
Ion Heating Due to Collisions	p. 445
Velocity-Dependent Recombination	p. 449
Positive and Negative Ionospheric Storms	p. 450
Electrodynamic Forcing of the Neutral Atmosphere	p. 451
J x B Forcing	p. 451
Global Observations and Simulations	p. 456
Particle Acceleration in the Topside Ionosphere	p. 459
Parallel Electric Fields in the Upper Ionosphere	p. 459
Ion Outflows and Perpendicular Ion Acceleration	p. 462
Summary	p. 465
References	p. 465
Instabilities and Structures in the High-Latitude Ionosphere	p. 469
Planetary and Large-Scale Structures in the High-Latitude F Region	p. 469
Convection and Production as Sources of Planetary Scale Structure in the High-Latitude Ionosphere	p. 470
Some Effects of Plasma Transport and Loss on the Large-Scale Horizontal Structure of the Ionosphere	p. 471
Longitudinal Structures Due to Localized Sub-Auroral Electric Fields	p. 476
Temperature Enhancements in the Trough and Stable Auroral Red Arcs	p. 480
Horizontal Plasma Variations Due to Localized Plasma Production and Heating	p. 480
Summary	p. 490
Intermediate-Scale Structure in the High-Latitude F Region	p. 490
The Generalized E x B Instability at High Latitudes	p. 490
Turbulent Mixing as an Alternative to Plasma Instabilities	p. 499
Diffusion and Image Formation	p. 502
Small-Scale Waves in the High-Latitude F Region	p. 510
E-Region Layering at High Latitudes	p. 515
Plasma Waves and Irregularities in the High-Latitude E Region: Observations	p. 516
Radar Observations	p. 518
Rocket Observations of Auroral Electrojet Instabilities	p. 519
Simultaneous Data Sets	p. 523
Summary	p. 526
Linear Auroral Electrojet Wave Theories	p. 526
The Gradient Drift Instability	p. 528
The Two-Stream Instability and Type 4 Radar Echoes	p. 532
Type 3 Radar Echoes: Are They Due to Ion Cyclotron Waves?	p. 533
Nonlinear Theories	p. 536
Summary	p. 538
References	p. 538
Index	p. 545
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The Earth's Ionosphere

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