Educational Research An Introduction

, by Gall, M. D.; Gall, Joyce P.; Borg, Walter R.

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ISBN: 9780205488490 | 0205488498
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 5/9/2006

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"Without question, this text is the most comprehensive, well-written, and practical introductory research methods textbook available. Gall, Gall, & Borg have stood the test of time." Susan N. Kushner Benson, University of Akron "This is a very student-friendly text." Ann Hassenpflug, University of Akron Educational Research: An Introduction, Eighth Edition, is the most comprehensive and widely respected text for scholars and for the preparation of graduate level students who need to understand educational research in depth and who may conduct original research for a dissertation or thesis. A comprehensive introduction to the major research methods and types of data analysis used today, this text provides detailed coverage of all facets of research, from the epistemology of quantitative and qualitative scientific inquiry to the design, data collection, analysis, and reporting of a completed study. New To This

Preface

xxvii

About the Authors

xxxi

PART I: Introduction

1. The Nature of Educational Research

(37)

Contributions of Research to Knowledge about Education

(7)

Description

(1)

Prediction

(1)

Improvement

(1)

Explanation

(4)

Uses of Theory

(1)

Approaches to Theory Development

(1)

Example of Theory Testing

(1)

Application of Research to Educational Practice

(5)

Limitations of Research Knowledge

(2)

The Importance of Basic Research

(1)

Funding for Educational Research

(1)

Epistemological Issues in Educational Research

(16)

Positivism and Postpositivism

(6)

Constructivism

(2)

Objective and Constructed Realities

(3)

Cases and Populations

(2)

Numerical and Verbal Representations of Social Reality

(2)

Mechanical, Interpretive, and Structural Views of Causation

(2)

Postmodernism

(1)

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

(3)

Mixed-Methods Research

(2)

A Definition of Research

(2)

Learning How to Do Educational Research

(1)

Self-Check Test

(2)

PART II: Planning a Research Study

(56)

2. The Research Process: From Proposal to Final Report

(28)

Introduction

(1)

Identifying a Research Problem

(8)

Reading the Research Literature

(2)

Doing Theory-Based Research

(1)

Example of Theory-Based Research

(1)

Advantages of Theory-Based Research

(1)

Replicating and Extending Previous Research

(3)

Working on a Team Project

(1)

Preparing a Research Proposal

(7)

Introductory Section

(4)

Research Hypotheses in Quantitative Research

(1)

Research Hypotheses in Qualitative Research

(1)

Research Questions and Purposes

(1)

Literature Review Section

(1)

Research Design Section

(1)

Research Methods Section

(1)

Data Analysis Section

(1)

Protection of Human Subjects Section

(1)

Time Line Section

(1)

Conducting a Pilot Study

(1)

Using the Proposal in Writing the Dissertation

(7)

Format

(1)

Front Matter

(1)

Introductory Chapter

(1)

Literature Review Chapter

(2)

Research Method Chapter

(1)

Results Chapter

(1)

Discussion Chapter

(1)

Back Matter

(1)

Preparing a Journal Article

(2)

Preparing a Paper for a Professional Meeting

(1)

Recommendations for Planning and Reporting Research

(1)

Self-Check Test

(1)

3. Ethics and Site Relations in Educational Research

(27)

The Importance of Ethics and Site Relations in Educational Research

(1)

Typical Aspects of Educational Research That May Raise Ethical Concerns

(7)

Planning and Design of Research

(1)

Researcher Qualifications

(1)

Conflict of Interest

(1)

Neglect of Important Topics

(1)

Research Methodology

(3)

Control Group Experience

(1)

Use of Deception

(1)

Use of Tests

(1)

Termination of Treatment Conditions

(1)

Data Collection and Analysis

(1)

Reporting of Research

(2)

Authorship

(1)

Plagiarism

(1)

Partial or Dual Publication

(1)

Formal Regulation of Research Ethics

(2)

Statements of Ethical Principles

(1)

Government Regulations

(1)

Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association

(2)

Ethical Principles of the American Psychological Association

(1)

Institutional Review Boards' Role in Ensuring Research Ethics

(9)

The Design and Purpose of an IRB

(1)

Examples of Research Situations That Call for IRB Review

(1)

Criteria for IRB Approval of a Research Project

(7)

Assessment of the Risk-Benefit Ratio

(1)

Selection of Participants

(1)

Obtaining Informed Consent

(2)

Maintenance of Privacy and Confidentiality

(2)

Treatment of Vulnerable Populations

(1)

Site Relations in Educational Research

(5)

Location of a Research Site

(1)

Securing Permission and Cooperation

(2)

Building a Relationship with the Site

(1)

Dealing with Human Relations Issues

(1)

Recommendations for Ensuring That a Research Study Is Ethical, Legal, and Harmonious

(1)

Self-Check Test

(2)

4. Reviewing the Literature

(28)

Purposes of a Literature Review

(2)

Major Steps in a Literature Review

(1)

Searching Preliminary Sources

(8)

Types of Documents Indexed by Preliminary Sources

(1)

Content and Coverage of Online Preliminary Sources

100

(1)

Popular Online Preliminary Sources

100

(3)

Search Strategies in Using Preliminary Sources

103

(2)

Displaying Records in Preliminary Sources

105

(2)

Using Secondary Sources

107

(3)

Reading Primary Sources

110

(2)

Classifying Primary Sources

111

(1)

Critical Evaluation of Research Studies

111

(1)

Synthesizing the Findings of Your Literature Review

112

(9)

Synthesizing Quantitative Research Findings

114

(4)

The Narrative Review

115

(1)

Vote Counting

115

(1)

The Chi-Square Method

115

(1)

Meta-Analysis and Effect Size

116

(2)

Synthesizing Qualitative Research Findings

118

(3)

Recommendations for Reviewing Research Literature

121

(1)

Self-Check Test

121

(2)

PART III: Research Methods

123

(174)

5. Statistical Techniques

124

(41)

The Use of Statistics in Educational Research

125

(4)

Example of Statistical Analysis in a Research Study

125

(1)

The Need for Judgment in Statistical Analysis

126

(2)

Acquiring Statistical Expertise

128

(1)

Types of Scores

129

(3)

Continuous Scores

129

(2)

Age and Grade Equivalents

130

(1)

Standard Scores

131

(1)

Rank Scores

131

(1)

Categories

132

(1)

Descriptive Statistics

132

(5)

Measures of Central Tendency

133

(2)

Mean, Median, and Mode

134

(1)

Skewness

134

(1)

Categorical Data

135

(1)

Measures of Variability

135

(2)

Standard Deviation

135

(1)

Normal Curve

135

(1)

Other Measures of Variability

136

(1)

Correlational Statistics

137

(1)

Inferential Statistics

137

(9)

Generalizing from a Sample to a Population

137

(1)

The Null Hypothesis

138

(1)

Tests of Statistical Significance

138

(2)

Levels of Statistical Significance

139

(1)

Type I and Type II Errors

139

(1)

Interpretation of Significance Tests

140

(2)

Alpha and Probability Values

140

(1)

Misinterpretation of pValues

140

(2)

Criticisms of Significance Tests

142

(1)

Types of Significance Tests

142

(1)

Statistical Power Analysis

142

(4)

Supplements to Significance Tests

146

(4)

Confidence Limits

146

(2)

Replication of Research Results

148

(1)

Effect Size

149

(1)

Psychometric Statistics

150

(1)

Problems in Statistical Analysis

151

(9)

The Need for Exploratory Data Analysis

151

(5)

Stem-and-Leaf Displays

152

(2)

Advantages of Stem-and-Leaf Displays

154

(1)

Graphical Displays

155

(1)

Missing Data

156

(2)

The Unit of Statistical Analysis

158

(2)

Multilevel Analysis

159

(1)

Processing Statistical Data

160

(3)

Computer Hardware

160

(1)

Computer Software

161

(1)

Computer Consultants

161

(1)

Checking Data Analyses for Accuracy

162

(1)

Storing Research Data

162

(1)

Recommendations for Doing Statistical Analyses

163

(1)

Self-Check Test

163

(2)

6. Selecting a Sample

165

(27)

Sampling Logic in Research

166

(1)

Sampling in Quantitative Research

166

(11)

Defining the Population of Interest

166

(3)

Target and Accessible Populations

166

(2)

Inferential Leaps from a Sample to a Population

168

(1)

Determining Population Validity

169

(1)

Types of Probability Sampling

170

(4)

Simple Random Sampling

170

(2)

Systematic Random Sampling

172

(1)

Stratified Random Sampling

173

(1)

Cluster Sampling

173

(1)

Example of Sampling a Phenomenon Rather Than Individuals

174

(1)

Nonprobability Sampling

174

(2)

Convenience Sampling

175

(1)

Determining Sample Size for a Quantitative Research Study

176

(1)

Sampling in Qualitative Research

177

(9)

Rationale of Purposeful Sampling

178

(1)

Applying Replication Logic

178

(2)

Types of Purposeful Sampling

180

(5)

Strategies to Select Cases Representing a Key Characteristic

180

(3)

Strategies Reflecting a Conceptual Rationale

183

(1)

Emergent Strategies

184

(1)

Strategy Lacking a Rationale

185

(1)

Determining the Number of Cases for a Qualitative Research Study

185

(1)

Volunteers in Research Samples

186

(4)

Characteristics of Research Volunteers

186

(3)

Volunteers in Research Requiring Parental Consent

187

(1)

Checking Volunteer Characteristics

188

(1)

Improving the Rate of Volunteering

189

(1)

Recommendations for Selecting a Research Sample

190

(1)

Self-Check Test

190

(2)

7. Collecting Research Data with Tests and Self-Report Measures

192

(35)

Use of Tests and Self-Report Measures in Educational Research

193

(1)

Characteristics of a Good Test in Research

194

(14)

Criteria for Judging the Quality of Tests

194

(1)

Objectivity

194

(1)

Standard Conditions of Administration and Scoring

194

(1)

Standards for Interpretation

195

(1)

Fairness

195

(1)

Test Validity

195

(5)

Evidence from Test Content

196

(1)

Evidence from Response Processes

197

(1)

Evidence from Internal Structure

197

(1)

Evidence from Relationship to Other Variables

198

(1)

Evidence from Consequences of Testing

199

(1)

Test Reliability

200

(8)

Types of Test Reliability

201

(2)

Use of Generalizability Theory

203

(1)

Standard Error of Measurement

203

(1)

Use of Item Response Theory

204

(4)

Approaches to Measurement

208

(5)

Standardized versus Locally Constructed Tests

208

(1)

Referenced Test Scores

209

(3)

Norm-Referenced Measurement

209

(1)

Criterion-Referenced Measurement

210

(1)

Individual-Referenced Measurement

211

(1)

Computer-Based Testing

212

(1)

Use of Computers in Test Development

212

(1)

Use of Computers in Test Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation

212

(1)

Individual versus Group Testing

213

(1)

Types of Tests and Self-Report Measures

213

(9)

Measures of Performance

214

(4)

Intelligence Tests

214

(1)

Aptitude Tests

214

(1)

Achievement Tests

214

(1)

Diagnostic Tests

215

(1)

Performance Assessment

215

(3)

Measures of Personal Characteristics

218

(2)

Personality Inventories

218

(1)

Projective Techniques

218

(1)

Measures of Specific Personality Traits

219

(1)

Measures of Self-Concept

219

(1)

Measures of Learning Styles and Habits

219

(1)

Attitude Scales

220

(1)

Measures of Vocational Interest

220

(1)

Obtaining Information about Tests and Self-Report Measures

220

(2)

Searching Preliminary and Secondary Sources

221

(1)

Reading the Test Manual

221

(1)

Examining the Test Itself

221

(1)

Contacting the Test Developer

222

(1)

Using Tests or Self-Report Measures in a Research Project

222

(3)

Developing Your Own Test

222

(1)

Dealing with Resistance to Tests

222

(1)

Testing in Field Sites

223

(1)

Gaining the Cooperation of Test-Takers

224

(1)

Recommendations for Using Tests and Self-Report Measures in Research

225

(1)

Self-Check Test

225

(2)

8. Collecting Research Data with Questionnaires and Interviews

227

(35)

Questionnaires and Interviews as Data-Collection Methods

228

(2)

Selecting between Questionnaires and Interviews

228

(1)

Validity and Reliability Issues

229

(1)

Survey Research

230

(1)

Steps in Constructing and Administering a Research Questionnaire

230

(13)

Step 1: Defining Research Objectives

230

(2)

Step 2: Selecting a Sample

232

(1)

Step 3: Designing the Questionnaire

233

(3)

Anonymity of Respondents

233

(1)

Item Form

233

(2)

Use of Questionnaires in the Measurement of Attitudes

235

(1)

Web Questionnaires

236

(1)

Step 4: Pilot-Testing the Questionnaire

236

(1)

Step 5: Precontacting the Sample

237

(1)

Step 6: Writing a Cover Letter

237

(3)

Step 7: Following Up with Nonrespondents

240

(1)

Step 8: Analyzing Questionnaire Data

241

(2)

Steps in Preparing and Conducting Research Interviews

243

(16)

Step 1: Defining the Purpose of the Interview

243

(2)

Key Informant Interviews

243

(1)

Survey Interviews

244

(1)

Focus Group Interviews

244

(1)

Step 2: Selecting a Sample

245

(1)

Step 3: Designing the Interview Format

245

(4)

Interview Formats in Quantitative Research

246

(1)

Interview Formats in Qualitative Research

247

(1)

Telephone Interviews

247

(1)

Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviews

248

(1)

Web Interviews

249

(1)

Step 4: Developing Questions

249

(1)

Step 5: Selecting and Training Interviewers

250

(3)

Distinctive Respondents

250

(2)

Respondents as Interviewers

252

(1)

Training of Interviewers

252

(1)

Step 6: Pilot-Testing the Interview

253

(1)

Step 7: Conducting the Interview

254

(3)

Interviewing Tasks

254

(2)

Recording Interview Data

256

(1)

Step 8: Analyzing Interview Data

257

(2)

Recommendations for Using a Questionnaire or an Interview Guide to Collect Research Data

259

(1)

Self-Check Test

260

(2)

9. Collecting Research Data through Observation and Content Analysis

262

(35)

Forms of Observation and Content Analysis

263

(1)

Reactive Observation in Quantitative Research

264

(20)

Defining Observational Variables

264

(2)

Types of Observational Variables

266

(1)

Recording and Analyzing Observations

266

(3)

Types of Recording Procedures

266

(3)

Selecting an Observation Recording Procedure

269

(2)

Standard Observation Forms

270

(1)

Audio and Video Recording

270

(1)

Use of Computers and Other Electronic Devices

271

(1)

Selecting and Training Observers

271

(2)

Determining Observer Agreement

272

(1)

Reducing Observer Effects

273

(2)

Types of Observer Effects

273

(2)

Reactive Observation in Qualitative Research

275

(3)

Purpose of Observation in Qualitative Research

276

(1)

Defining the Observer Role

277

(1)

Preparing for Observation

278

(1)

Determining the Focus of Observation

278

(2)

Gaining Entry into the Field Setting

280

(1)

Recording Observations

281

(2)

What Field Notes Should Include

281

(2)

Dealing with Observer Effects

283

(1)

Analyzing Qualitative Observational Data

284

(1)

Nonreactive Observation in Quantitative Research

284

(2)

Use of Unobtrusive Measures

284

(3)

Potential Limitations of Unobtrusive Measures

285

(1)

Nonreactive Observation in Qualitative Research

286

(1)

Content Analysis of Documents and Other Communication Media

287

(7)

Content Analysis in Quantitative Research

288

(3)

Steps in Content Analysis

288

(3)

Analysis of Documents and Records in Qualitative Observation

291

(3)

Recommendations for Using Observational and Content-Analysis Methods

294

(1)

Self-Check Test

295

(2)

PART IV: Quantitative Research Design

297

(148)

10. Nonexperimental Research: Descriptive and Causal-Comparative Designs

298

(33)

Introduction

299

(1)

An Example from Medical Research

299

(1)

Descriptive Research Designs

300

(6)

The Purpose of Descriptive Research

300

(1)

Measurement in Descriptive Research

301

(1)

Statistics in Descriptive Research

301

(1)

Description of a Sample at One Point in Time

302

(1)

Longitudinal Description of a Sample

302

(4)

Trend Studies

303

(1)

Cohort Studies

303

(1)

Panel Studies

304

(1)

Cross-Sectional Studies

305

(1)

Causal-Comparative Research Designs

306

(23)

The Study of Cause-and-Effect Relationships

306

(1)

Example of a Causal-Comparative Research Study

307

(4)

Planning a Causal-Comparative Study

311

(4)

Statement of the Research Problem

311

(1)

Selecting Comparison Groups

312

(2)

Data Collection

314

(1)

Data Analysis

315

(1)

Statistical Analysis: The t Test

315

(3)

The tTest for the Difference between Means

315

(2)

The tTest for a Single Mean

317

(1)

Statistical Analysis: Analysis of Variance

318

(7)

Comparison of More Than Two Means

318

(2)

Analysis of Covariance

320

(1)

Multivariate Analysis of Variance

321

(3)

Tests for the Difference between Variances

324

(1)

Statistical Analysis: Nonparametric Tests

325

(3)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Nonparametric Tests

325

(1)

The Chi-Square Test

325

(2)

Other Nonparametric Tests

327

(1)

Interpretation of Causal-Comparative Findings

328

(1)

Recommendations for Doing Descriptive and Causal-Comparative Research

329

(1)

Self-Check Test

329

(2)

11. Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Designs

331

(48)

The Nature of Correlation

332

(5)

Types of Scattergrams

332

(2)

Positive Correlation

332

(1)

Negative Correlation

333

(1)

Absence of Correlation

334

(1)

The Mathematics of Correlation

334

(1)

Correlational Research Design

335

(1)

Correlation and Causality

335

(1)

Advantages and Uses of Correlational Research

336

(1)

Planning a Causal Relationship Study

337

(4)

Basic Research Design

337

(4)

The Problem

337

(1)

Selection of Research Participants

338

(1)

Data Collection

338

(1)

Data Analysis

339

(1)

Problems of Interpretation

340

(1)

Limitations of Causal Relationship Studies

341

(1)

Planning a Prediction Study

341

(6)

Types of Prediction Studies

341

(1)

Basic Research Design

342

(4)

The Problem

342

(1)

Selection of Research Participants

343

(1)

Data Collection

343

(1)

Data Analysis

344

(2)

Statistical Factors in Prediction Research

346

(1)

Group Prediction

346

(1)

Shrinkage

346

(1)

Bivariate Correlational Statistics

347

(5)

Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient

347

(1)

Correlation Ratio

347

(3)

Adjustments to Correlation Coefficients

350

(2)

Correction for Attenuation

350

(1)

Correction for Restriction in Range

350

(1)

Part and Partial Correlation

351

(1)

Multivariate Correlational Statistics

352

(25)

Multiple Regression

353

(8)

A Research Example

353

(3)

Steps in a Multiple Regression Analysis

356

(2)

Multiple Correlation Coefficient

358

(1)

Coefficient of Determination

359

(1)

The Mathematics of Multiple Regression

359

(1)

Types of Multiple Regression

360

(1)

Cautions in Using Multiple Regression

361

(1)

Hierarchical Linear Modeling

361

(2)

Path Analysis

363

(5)

Steps in Path Analysis

364

(2)

Path Analysis Models

366

(1)

The Mathematics of Path Analysis

367

(1)

Path Analysis and Theory Testing

368

(1)

Factor Analysis

368

(3)

Factor Loadings and Factor Scores

369

(1)

Types of Factor Analysis

370

(1)

Structural Equation Modeling

371

(2)

Differential Analysis

373

(2)

Subgroup Analysis in Causal Relationship Studies

373

(1)

Moderator Variables in Prediction Studies

374

(1)

Interpretation of Correlation Coefficients

375

(4)

Statistical Significance of Correlation Coefficients

375

(1)

Interpreting the Magnitude of Correlation Coefficients

375

(2)

Recommendations for Doing Correlational Research

377

(1)

Self-Check Test

377

(2)

12. Experimental Research: Designs, Part 1

379

(36)

Introduction

379

(4)

Terminology in Experimental Design

381

(1)

Validity Problems in Experiments

381

(2)

Internal Validity of Experiments

383

(5)

External Validity of Experiments

388

(6)

Population Validity

389

(1)

Ecological Validity

390

(2)

Representative Design

392

(2)

Issues in Designing Experiments

394

(8)

Experimenter Bias

394

(1)

Treatment Fidelity

395

(1)

Strong versus Weak Experimental Treatments

396

(1)

Random Assignment in Experiments

397

(5)

Single-Group Designs

402

(2)

The One-Shot Case Study

402

(1)

One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

402

(2)

Time-Series Design

404

(1)

Control-Group Designs with Random Assignment

404

(9)

Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design

405

(4)

Posttest-Only Control-Group Design

409

(3)

One-Variable Multiple-Condition Design

412

(1)

Recommendations for Doing Experiments

413

(1)

Self-Check Test

413

(2)

13. Experimental Research: Designs, Part 2

415

(30)

Quasi-Experimental Designs

416

(2)

Static-Group Comparison Design

416

(1)

Nonequivalent Control-Group Design

416

(2)

Factorial Designs

418

(19)

Two-Factor Experiments

418

(3)

Example of a Two-Factor Experiment

418

(3)

Solomon Four-Group Design

421

(2)

Example of a Solomon Four-Group Experiment

421

(2)

Variations in Factorial Experiments

423

(3)

Three-Factor Experiments

423

(1)

Manipulability of Independent Variables

424

(1)

Fixed and Random Factors

425

(1)

Assignment of Participants to Multiple Treatments

426

(1)

Single-Case Designs

426

(1)

Example of a Single-Case Experiment

427

(3)

General Design Considerations

430

(2)

Reliable Observation

430

(1)

Repeated Measurement

431

(1)

Description of Experimental Conditions

431

(1)

Baseline and Treatment Stability

431

(1)

Length of Baseline and Treatment Phases

432

(1)

A-B-A Designs

432

(1)

A-B Design

432

(1)

A-B-A and A-B-A-B Designs

432

(1)

Multiple-Baseline Designs

433

(2)

Example of a Multiple-Baseline Experiment

433

(2)

Statistical Analysis of Single-Case Data

435

(2)

External Validity of Single-Case Designs

437

(1)

Other Experimental Designs

437

(1)

Measurement of Change

438

(5)

Gain Scores

438

(2)

Statistical Analysis of Change

440

(7)

Multiple Regression

440

(1)

Analysis of Covariance and t Tests

440

(1)

Analysis of Varience for Repeated Measures

440

(3)

Recommendations for Doing Experiments

443

(1)

Self-Check Test

443

(2)

PART V: Approaches to Qualitative Research

445

(112)

14. Case Study Research

446

(42)

Importance of Case Study in Qualitative Research

447

(6)

Characteristics of Case Studies

447

(4)

Study of Particular Instances

447

(1)

In-Depth Study of the Case

448

(1)

Study of a Phenomenon in Its Real-Life Context

449

(1)

Representation of Emic and Etic Perspectives

450

(1)

Purposes of Case Studies

451

(2)

Description

451

(1)

Explanation

452

(1)

Evaluation

453

(1)

Designing a Case Study

453

(7)

Formulating a Research Problem

455

(1)

Selecting a Case

456

(1)

Defining the Role of the Case Study Researcher

457

(1)

Gaining Entry

458

(1)

Addressing Ethical Issues

459

(1)

Collecting Case Study Data

460

(5)

Personal Involvement in the Data-Collection Process

461

(2)

Analyzing Data during Data Collection

463

(2)

Ending Data Collection

465

(1)

Analyzing Case Study Data

465

(8)

Interpretational Analysis

466

(5)

Segmenting the Database

466

(1)

Developing Categories

467

(1)

Coding Segments

468

(1)

Grouping Category Segments

468

(1)

Drawing Conclusions

469

(2)

Structural Analysis

471

(1)

Reflective Analysis

472

(1)

Ensuring the Quality and Rigor of Qualitative Research

473

(4)

Strategies to Meet Users' Needs

474

(1)

Strategies to Ensure Thorough Data Collection

474

(1)

Strategies Reflecting Sound Research Design

475

(3)

Positivist Conceptions of the Validity and Reliability of Case Study Research

476

(1)

Determining the Applicability of Case Study Findings

477

(1)

Reporting a Case Study

478

(6)

Finalizing Definition of the Case

479

(1)

Reflective Reporting

480

(2)

Analytic Reporting

482

(2)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Study Research

484

(1)

Recommendations for Doing Case Studies

485

(1)

Self-Check Test

486

(2)

15. Qualitative Research Traditions

488

(40)

Qualitative Research Traditions in Educational Research

489

(3)

The Characteristics of Qualitative Research Traditions

490

(2)

Traditions Involving Investigation of Lived Experience

492

(8)

Cognitive Psychology

492

(3)

A Study of Differences in the Knowledge Structures of Experts and Novices

493

(2)

Phenomenology

495

(2)

Phenomenographic Research

497

(1)

Life History Research

498

(2)

Traditions Involving Investigation of Society and Culture

500

(19)

Ethnography

500

(9)

Phenomena Studied by Ethnographers

503

(1)

Doing an Ethnographic Study

503

(5)

Issues Facing Ethnography

508

(1)

Cultural Studies and Critical-Theory Research

509

(9)

Assumptions of the Cultural Studies Tradition

509

(3)

Methods of Inquiry

512

(1)

Focus on Issues Relevant to Education

513

(1)

Theory Building in Cultural Studies

514

(3)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Cultural Studies

517

(1)

Ethnomethodology

518

(1)

Traditions Involving Investigation of Language and Communication

519

(7)

Hermeneutics

520

(2)

Semiotics

522

(1)

Structuralism and Poststructuralism

523

(3)

Recommendations for Designing a Study Based on a Qualitative Research Tradition

526

(1)

Self-Check Test

526

(2)

16. Historical Research

528

(29)

Importance of Historical Research in Education

529

(4)

Subject Matter of Historical Research

530

(1)

Impact of Historical Research on Education

530

(6)

A Subject in the Curriculum

530

(1)

A Foundation for Developing New Knowledge and Policies Related to Education

531

(1)

A Variable Affecting the Validity of Research Findings

532

(1)

A Basis for Evaluating Educational Programs

532

(1)

A Tool in Planning the Future

532

(1)

Historiography and the Stages of Historical Research

533

(1)

Defining a Problem for Historical Research

534

(2)

Studying Historical Sources

536

(3)

Formulating a Search Plan

536

(1)

Searching Preliminary Sources

536

(1)

Reading Secondary Sources

537

(1)

Studying Primary Sources

537

(2)

Recording Information from Historical Sources

539

(1)

Recording and Analyzing Quantitative Data

540

(1)

Evaluation of Historical Sources

540

(3)

External Criticism

541

(1)

Internal Criticism

542

(1)

Interpretation in Historical Research

543

(5)

Use of Concepts to Interpret Historical Information

543

(1)

Historians as Interpreters

544

(2)

Causal Inference in Historical Research

546

(1)

Generalizability of Historical Evidence

547

(1)

Writing a Historical Research Report

548

(1)

Examples of Historical Research in Education

549

(5)

A Micropolitical Perspective on the Education of Mexican Americans in a South Texas Community

549

(2)

Politics and the Pendulum: A Historical Analysis of Whole Language

551

(8)

Expanding Political Opportunities

552

(1)

Shared Cognitions

552

(1)

Mobilization of Indigent Organization Resources

552

(1)

Shifting Response of Other Organized Groups to the Movement

553

(1)

Recommendations for Doing Historical Research

554

(1)

Self-Check Test

554

(3)

PART VI: Applications of Research

557

(59)

17. Evaluation Research

558

(39)

The Role of Evaluation in Education

559

(1)

Relationship between Evaluation and Research

559

(1)

Steps in Program Evaluation

560

(9)

Clarifying the Reasons for an Evaluation

561

(1)

Selecting an Evaluation Model

561

(1)

Example of Collaborative Evaluation

562

(1)

Identifying Stakeholders

562

(1)

Deciding What Is to Be Evaluated

563

(2)

Program Goals

563

(1)

Program Resources and Procedures

563

(1)

Program Management

564

(1)

Program Outcomes

565

(1)

Identifying Evaluation Questions

565

(1)

Developing an Evaluation Design and Time Line

566

(1)

Collecting and Analyzing Evaluation Data

567

(1)

Reporting Evaluation Results

568

(1)

Criteria for Effective Evaluation Research

569

(4)

Program Evaluation Standards

569

(3)

Personnel Evaluation Standards

572

(1)

Other Standards for Educational Evaluation

572

(1)

Quantitative Approaches to Evaluation

573

(7)

Evaluation of the Individual

573

(1)

Objectives-Based Evaluation

573

(2)

Needs Assessment

575

(4)

Example of Needs Assessment

576

(2)

Limitations of Needs Assessment

578

(1)

Context—Input—Process—Product (CIPP) Evaluation

579

(1)

Qualitative Approaches to Evaluation

580

(9)

Responsive Evaluation

581

(2)

Example of Responsive Evaluation

581

(1)

Emergent Design

582

(1)

Fourth-Generation Evaluation

583

(1)

Quasi-Legal Models of Evaluation

583

(3)

Adversary Evaluation

583

(2)

Judicial Evaluation

585

(1)

Expertise-Based Evaluation

586

(2)

Educational Connoisseurship and Criticism

586

(1)

Example of Expertise-Based Evaluation

587

(1)

Empowerment Evaluation

588

(1)

Example of Empowerment Evaluation

588

(1)

Educational Research and Development

589

(5)

R&D Model

589

(1)

Formative and Summative Evaluation

590

(2)

Example of R&D Evaluation

592

(2)

Recommendations for Doing an Evaluation Research Study or an R&D Evaluation

594

(1)

Self-Check Test

595

(2)

18. Action Research

597

(19)

Characteristics of Action Research

597

(3)

Purposes for Conducting Action Research

599

(1)

Personal Purposes for Action Research

599

(1)

Professional Purposes for Action Research

599

(1)

Political Purposes for Action Research

600

(1)

Cyclical Nature of Action Research

600

(6)

Focus on Data Collection and Analysis as a Basis for Action

603

(1)

Focus on Reflection

604

(2)

Stages of Action Research

606

(3)

Selecting a Focus

606

(1)

Taking Action

607

(1)

Collecting Data

607

(1)

Analyzing and Interpreting the Data

607

(1)

Continuing or Modifying Action

607

(1)

Reflection

608

(1)

Reporting Action Research

608

(1)

Credibility and Trustworthiness of Action Research

609

(3)

Outcome Validity

610

(1)

Process Validity

610

(1)

Democratic Validity

610

(1)

Catalytic Validity

611

(1)

Dialogic Validity

611

(1)

Reducing Discrepancies between Practitioners' Espoused Theories and Theories-in-Action

612

(1)

Practitioner—Academic Collaboration

612

(1)

Ethical Issues in Action Research

613

(1)

Recommendations for Doing Action Research

614

(1)

Self-Check Test

614

(2)

Self-Check Test Answers

616

(2)

APPENDIX A Questions for Evaluating Quantitative Research Reports

618

(4)

APPENDIX B Questions for Evaluating Qualitative Research Reports

622

(4)

APPENDIX C Preliminary and Secondary Sources: Tests and Self-Report Measures

626

(3)

APPENDIX D Preliminary and Secondary Sources on the History of Education

629

(3)

Glossary

632

(27)

Author Index

659

(7)

Subject Index

666

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Educational Research An Introduction

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials