Energy and Natural Resources Law in a Nutshell

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ISBN: 9780314001184 | 0314001182
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 1/1/1992

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Law and the Resources Market; Economics and Natural Resources Markets; Law and Government and the Natural Resources Market; Resource Management and Protection; Public Lands and Natural Resources Law; Environmental Law; Environmental Assessment and NEPA; Resource Production and Use; Minerals Law; Timber Law; Water Law; Energy Resource Distribution and Use; Federal Energy Policy; Developing Energy Resources; Energy, Conversion and Distribution.

Preface

Table of Cases

xxxv

PART I. LAW AND THE RESOURCES MARKET

Economics and Natural Resources Markets

(27)

Property Interests in Natural Resources

(3)

Private Goods

(1)

Public Goods

(1)

Common Goods

(1)

The Free Market and Natural Resources Use

(13)

The Regulatory Life Cycle

(3)

The Market

(1)

Demand

(1)

Supply

(2)

Equilibrium

(1)

Costs

(2)

Marginal Revenue

(2)

Price Elasticity of Demand

(1)

Failures of the Market

(5)

Monopoly

(1)

Rent Control

(1)

Externalities

(1)

Information Costs

(1)

Excessive Competition

(1)

Scarce Resource Allocation

(1)

Unequal Bargaining

(1)

Rationalization

(1)

Paternalism

(1)

Moral Hazard

(1)

Cost-Benefit Analysis

(5)

An Overview of Cost-Benefit Methodology

(1)

A Critique of Cost-Benefit Analysis

(2)

The Legal Role of Cost-Benefit Analysis

(2)

Law and Government and the Natural Resources Market

(35)

The Common Law and Natural Resources

(9)

Limitations on the Common Law

(1)

Statutory Law

(1)

Public Rights

(1)

The Federal Navigational Servitude

(1)

The Public Trust Doctrine

(1)

Public Rights to Non-navigable Waters

(1)

Public Access

(1)

Uses of the Common Law

(1)

Tort Law

(1)

Property Law

(1)

Contract Law

(1)

Government Action and Natural Resources

(25)

Administrative Law Themes

(1)

Adjudication and Rulemaking

(2)

The Right to Judicial Review

(1)

Standard of Review

(1)

Overturning Agency Actions

(1)

Standing

(4)

Timing

(4)

Constitutional Law Themes

(1)

Federalism

(2)

Limitations on Regulation

(4)

The Cases and Controversies Requirement

(4)

PART II. RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION

Public Lands and Natural Resources Law

(75)

Federal Power Over Public Lands and Resources

(26)

Nature and Extent of Public Ownership

(1)

Legal Authority of Federal Government and States

(1)

Source of Power

(2)

The Reach of the Property and Jurisdiction Clauses

(1)

The Property Clause

(1)

The Jurisdiction Clause

(1)

Federal and State Power

(1)

Federal Preemption

(2)

Federal Immunity from State Law

(1)

Congressional and Executive Authority

(2)

Exercises of Power

(3)

Historical Development of Public Lands and Resources Policy

(1)

Acquisition

(1)

Disposition

(1)

Statehood

(1)

Grants to States

(1)

Grants to Railroads and Problems of Access

(2)

Grants to Farmers, Ranchers, and Homesteaders

(1)

Withdrawals and Reservations

(2)

Management

(1)

Multiple Use

(1)

Preservation

(1)

Environmental Review

(1)

Planning

(1)

Reclamation

(1)

Reacquisition and Reclassification

(2)

The Law of Public Lands and Resources

(49)

Management of Special Purpose Public Lands

(1)

Rangeland

(2)

Nature of the Rancher-Permittee's Property Interest

(2)

Range Management and NEPA

(1)

FLPMA of 1976 and the Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978 (PRIA)

(2)

Regulation of Non-Grazing Uses of Public Rangeland

(1)

FLPMA Rights-of-Way

(1)

Recreation

(1)

Competition with other Animals

(1)

Preservation Lands

(2)

Preservation for Recreation

101

(1)

National Park and Monuments

101

(1)

Concessions, Support Facilities, and Services

102

(1)

Commercial Recreational Activities

103

(1)

Non-Recreational, Commercial Development

103

(1)

Threats to Parklands

104

(1)

Liability

105

(1)

Other Federal Recreation Lands

105

(1)

National Recreation Areas

105

(1)

Forest Service Lands

106

(1)

Preservation for Historic, Wilderness, and Ecological Purposes

107

(1)

Cultural, Historic and Scientific Preservation

107

(1)

Historic Preservation

107

(1)

Protection of Antiquities and Archaeological Resources

108

(1)

Preservation of Wilderness Values

109

(1)

Creation of Wilderness Areas

110

(1)

Management of Designated Wilderness Lands

111

(1)

Wilderness in National Forests

112

(2)

Wilderness in BLM Lands

114

(1)

Wilderness in National Parks and Wildlife Refuges

115

(1)

Preservation of Water Resources

115

(1)

Protection of Free-Flowing Rivers

115

(2)

Protection of Wetlands and Tidelands

117

(3)

Management of Natural Resources on Public Lands

120

(1)

Economically Valuable Resources

120

(1)

The Wildlife Resource

120

(1)

The Legal Framework

120

(1)

Government ``Ownership'' of Wildlife?

120

(1)

Federal Authority Over Wildlife

121

(1)

Legal Boundaries of State Wildlife Law

121

(1)

Conflicts with Other States

121

(1)

State Wildlife Management on Federal Lands

122

(1)

Federal Wildlife Management

123

(1)

Killing, Hunting, and Fishing

123

(1)

Taking Wildlife for Business, Recreation, Subsistence, and Predator Control

123

(1)

Hunting and Fishing within Federal Land Systems

124

(1)

Wildlife Impact Review

125

(1)

NEPA

125

(2)

Other Wildlife Impact Review Statutes

127

(1)

Habitat Acquisition and Protection

127

(1)

The National Wildlife Refuge System

127

(1)

Habitat Acquisition

128

(1)

Management of National Wildlife Refuges

129

(1)

Species Protection---The Endangered Species Act

129

(2)

The ``Taking'' Prohibition

131

(2)

The Prohibition Against Federal Actions That Jeopardize Species or Harm Habitat

133

(1)

The Duty to ``Conserve''

133

(1)

The Duty to ``Consult''

134

(1)

Effect of the Endangered Species Act

135

(1)

Other Federal Species Protection Laws

136

(1)

Horses and Burros

136

(1)

Bald Eagles

136

(1)

Migratory Birds

137

(1)

Marine Mammals

137

(1)

International Protection of Wildlife Species

138

(1)

Environmental Law

139

(79)

Natural Resources, Environmentalism, and Environmental Law

139

(4)

Private and State Environmental Law

143

(4)

Common Law

143

(1)

Grounds for Common Law Relief

143

(2)

Defenses to Common Law Relief

145

(1)

State Statutory Environmental Law

146

(1)

Controlling Environmental Decisionmaking of Federal Agencies

147

(5)

Private Enforcement of Federal Statutory Violations

148

(1)

Judicial Review of Agency Environmental Decisionmaking

149

(1)

Reviewability

149

(1)

Scope of Review

150

(1)

Remedies

151

(1)

Pollution Control

152

(38)

Air Pollution

152

(2)

Ambient Air Quality Standards

154

(1)

Permitting

155

(1)

State Implementation Plans (SIPs)

155

(1)

Purpose and Content

155

(1)

Inadequate SIPs

156

(1)

Technological and Economic Feasibility

157

(1)

Use of Tall Stacks and Dispersion Techniques

158

(1)

Relief Provisions

158

(1)

New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)

159

(1)

``New'' or ``Modified'' Sources

159

(1)

Standards

160

(1)

Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD)

160

(2)

Visibility

162

(1)

Nonattainment Areas

163

(1)

Deadlines

163

(1)

Standards

164

(1)

Intra--Source Bubbles and Inter-Source Offsets

164

(1)

Air Toxics

165

(1)

Interstate Pollution

166

(1)

The Clean Air Act Provisions

166

(1)

The Acid Rain Provisions of the 1990 Amendments

167

(1)

Water Pollution

168

(2)

Effluent Limitations

170

(1)

Levels of Treatment---Types of Pollutants

171

(1)

Best Practicable Technology (BPT)

172

(1)

Best Available Technology (BAT)

173

(1)

Best Conventional Technology (BCT)

173

(1)

Nonconventional Nontoxic Pollutants

174

(1)

Toxic Pollutants

174

(1)

Effluent Limitations for New Sources

175

(1)

Variances

176

(1)

Water Quality Standards

176

(1)

Setting Standards

177

(1)

Conflicts

178

(1)

The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)

179

(1)

Definitions

179

(1)

``Pollutant''

180

(1)

``Added''

180

(1)

``Navigable Waters''

180

(1)

``Point Sources''

181

(1)

The NPDES Permit

182

(1)

Section 401 Certification

183

(1)

Regulation of Other Waste Discharges

183

(1)

Non-point Source Pollution

183

(1)

Runoff and Stormwater

184

(1)

Hazardous Waste and Oil Spills

185

(1)

Thermal Pollution

185

(1)

Groundwater Pollution

186

(1)

Regulation Under the Clean Water Act

186

(1)

Regulation Under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

187

(1)

Section 404 Permitting for Dredged or Fill Material

188

(2)

Toxic and Hazardous Substance Control

190

(28)

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

193

(1)

Identification and Listing of Hazardous Wastes

194

(2)

Cradle to Grave Regulation

196

(1)

Generators of Waste

196

(1)

Transportation of Wastes

196

(1)

Treatment, Storage, and Disposal (TSD) Facilities

197

(1)

Permits

197

(1)

Assurances of Financial Responsibility

198

(1)

Imminent and Substantial Endangerment

199

(1)

Regulation of Mine Waste

199

(1)

Uranium Mill Tailings

199

(1)

``Bevill'' Wastes under RCRA

200

(1)

Additional Federal Environmental Regulation of Mining Wastes

201

(1)

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)

202

(1)

CERCLA and RCRA

202

(2)

Scope of CERCLA

204

(1)

``Release''

204

(1)

``Disposal''

204

(1)

``Hazardous Substances'' and the Petroleum Exclusion

205

(1)

``Facility''

206

(1)

CERCLA Response Procedures

206

(1)

Removal or Remedial Action

206

(1)

Who Pays?

207

(1)

How Clean Is Clean?

207

(1)

Liability of Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs)

208

(1)

Costs and Damages Recoverable

209

(1)

CERCLA Plaintiffs

210

(1)

CERCLA Defendants

210

(2)

Nature of Liability---Opportunity for Contribution

212

(1)

Defenses

213

(2)

Abandoned or Inactive Mining Activities

215

(1)

Settlement Agreements

216

(2)

Environmental Assessment and NEPA

218

(28)

Administration and Enforcement

219

(4)

The Council on Environmental Quality

219

(1)

Procedural Obligations

220

(1)

Judicial Review and Intervention

221

(2)

Threshold Requirements

223

(5)

Is There a ``Proposal'' to Undertake a ``Major Federal Action''?

223

(1)

Is the Federal Action ``Major''?

224

(1)

Is the Action ``Federal''?

225

(1)

Is the Action Affecting the ``Environment''?

226

(1)

When Is the Environmental Impact ``Significant''?

227

(1)

Scope

228

(5)

The Need for a Proposal

228

(1)

Actions Entailing Federal and Non-Federal Participation

229

(1)

Particular Actions As Part of a Broader Program

229

(1)

Programmatic EISs

230

(1)

CEQ Regulations

231

(1)

Segmentation, Independent Utility and Tiering

231

(2)

Timing

233

(2)

Adequacy of the Impact Statement

235

(7)

Alternatives and Mitigation

236

(2)

Impact Analysis

238

(1)

Uncertainty and Lack of Information

238

(1)

Kinds of Impacts

239

(1)

Impact Analysis Not Necessary

240

(1)

New Information and Supplemental EISs

241

(1)

NEPA in Special Contexts

242

(4)

Relationship Between NEPA and Other Federal Statutes

242

(1)

Proposals for Legislation

243

(1)

Extraterritorial Relevance of NEPA

244

(2)

PART III. RESOURCE PRODUCTION AND USE

Minerals Law

246

(65)

The Law of Locatable, Hard Rock Minerals

249

(20)

Location

251

(1)

Lands Open to Location

251

(1)

Locatable Minerals

252

(2)

Qualified Locators

254

(1)

Types of Locations

254

(1)

Location Procedures

255

(1)

Discovery

256

(1)

Prospector's Rights Prior to Discovery: Pedis Possessio

256

(1)

Discovery of a Valuable Mineral

257

(1)

The Discovery Test for Controversies Involving the United States

258

(1)

The Discovery Test for Controversies Involving Rival Claimants

259

(1)

The Unpatented Mining Claim

259

(1)

Rights Granted

260

(1)

Exclusive Right of Possession

260

(1)

Surface Rights

261

(1)

Extralateral Rights

261

(2)

The Right to Amend or Relocate Claims

263

(1)

Limitations and Requirements

263

(1)

Assessment Requirements

263

(1)

Acts that Qualify for Assessment Work

264

(1)

Effect of Failure to Perform Annual Assessment Work

264

(1)

Surface Use and Environmental Limitations

265

(1)

Statutory Restrictions

265

(2)

Regulatory Restrictions

267

(1)

Forest Service Regulations

267

(1)

BLM Regulations

268

(1)

The Patented Claim

268

(1)

The Law of Leasable, Energy Minerals

269

(31)

Oil and Gas

270

(1)

Royalties Management

271

(2)

Onshore Oil and Gas

273

(1)

Predicates to the Leasing Decision

273

(1)

Secretarial Discretion

273

(1)

Lands Available to Lease

273

(1)

Minerals Encompassed by ``Oil and Gas''

274

(1)

The Leasing Decision

274

(2)

Lease Terms and Extensions

276

(1)

Lease Stages

276

(2)

Conditions to the Oil and Gas Lease

278

(1)

NEPA

279

(1)

Timing

279

(1)

Scope

280

(1)

Impact Anlaysis

281

(1)

Offshore Oil and Gas

281

(1)

Federal Jurisdiction

281

(1)

The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA)

282

(1)

Leasing Programs

282

(1)

Environmental Concerns

283

(1)

The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA)

284

(1)

NEPA

284

(1)

Coal

285

(1)

Pre-1976 Federal Coal Leasing

286

(1)

Coal Leasing Under the 1920 Mineral Leasing Act

286

(1)

The 1971-1976 Moratorium

287

(1)

The Federal Coal Leasing Amendments Act (FCLAA)

287

(1)

Coal Leasing Under the FCLAA

287

(1)

Fair Market Value

288

(1)

Retroactive Effect of the FCLAA

289

(1)

``Valid Existing Rights''

289

(1)

Application of FCLAA to Pre-1976 Coal Leases

290

(2)

Coal Production and the Environment

292

(1)

NEPA

292

(1)

The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA)

292

(1)

Scope and Administration

293

(1)

Statutory Scheme

294

(2)

Valid Existing Rights

296

(1)

Oil Shale

297

(2)

Geothermal

299

(1)

Nature of the Resource

299

(1)

The Geothermal Steam Act

299

(1)

The Law of Salable, Common Variety Minerals

300

(6)

The Materials Act and Common Varieties Act

301

(1)

Lands Subject to Materials Sale

301

(1)

Sale of Materials Reserved as ``Minerals'' by Federal Land Disposal Statutes

301

(1)

The Location System and Common Variety Materials

302

(1)

Common Variety Materials Found in Association With Locatable Minerals

302

(1)

Location of Pre-1955 Discoveries of Common Variety Materials

303

(1)

Location of Post-1955 Discoveries of Common Variety Materials

304

(1)

``Distinct and Special Value''

304

(1)

Satisfying the Discovery Test

305

(1)

Disposal of Salable Materials

305

(1)

Federal Reserved Mineral Rights

306

(5)

What Has Been Reserved?

307

(1)

Relationship Between Mineral and Surface Estates

308

(1)

Implied Reservations

309

(1)

Mineral Reservations When Land Conveyed to the United States

310

(1)

Timber Law

311

(45)

Private Timber Law

314

(6)

Ownership

314

(1)

Timber

314

(1)

Land

315

(1)

Conveyances and Reservations of Interests in Timber

315

(1)

Nature of the Interest

316

(1)

Conveyances

316

(1)

Reservations

317

(1)

Access

318

(1)

Relationship Between Landowner and Owner of Timber Rights

318

(1)

Contracts to Log and Market Timber

318

(1)

Cutting Timber Without Permission

319

(1)

Trespass

319

(1)

Damages

320

(1)

State Timber Law

320

(6)

Reforestation: State Forest Practice Acts

321

(2)

Beyond Reforestation Regulation

323

(1)

Protection of the Environment

324

(1)

Federal Impetus

324

(1)

Environmental Protection

324

(1)

Recreation and Preservation

325

(1)

Watershed Protection and Fire Prevention

325

(1)

Federal Timber Law

326

(30)

Uses of National Forestlands

327

(1)

Timber Harvesting

327

(2)

Timber Sales

329

(1)

The Timber Sale Process

329

(1)

Defeating Timber Sales

329

(2)

Timber Sales Contracts

331

(1)

Timber Contract Terms

331

(1)

Modification and Cancellation of Existing Contracts

332

(1)

The Federal Timber Contract Payment Modification Act (FTCPMA)

332

(1)

Harvesting Methods: The Clearcutting Controversy

333

(1)

Mining and Minerals Development

334

(1)

Hard Rock Mining

335

(1)

Oil and Gas

336

(2)

Coal

338

(1)

Multiple Use

338

(1)

Non-timber Uses of National Forests

338

(1)

Judicial Views on Multiple Use in National Forests

339

(1)

Future Multiple Use Management

340

(1)

Forest Management by Planning

340

(1)

The Resources Planning Act of 1974

341

(1)

The National Forest Management Act of 1976

342

(1)

The Planning Process

342

(2)

Substantive Requirements

344

(1)

Environmental Constraints

344

(1)

Method of Harvest

345

(1)

Timing and Amount of Harvest

346

(1)

Location of Harvest

347

(1)

Cost of Harvest

347

(1)

Timber Harvesting on BLM Lands

348

(1)

Environmental and Preservationist Values

348

(1)

NEPA

349

(1)

Failure to Prepare EIS

349

(1)

Adequacy of EIS

350

(1)

Failure to Prepare Supplemental EIS

351

(1)

Wildlife Protection

351

(1)

Wilderness

352

(1)

Clean Water Act

353

(1)

Water Quality

353

(1)

The Silvicultural Exemption to the Dredge and Fill Permit Requirement

354

(1)

Chemical Spraying

355

(1)

Water Law

356

(44)

State Water Law

358

(32)

Systems of Water Law

358

(1)

Riparian Rights

358

(1)

Nature and Characteristics of Riparian Right

358

(2)

Conveyances

360

(1)

Limits on Riparian Rights

361

(1)

Loss of the Riparian Right

362

(1)

Prior Appropriation

363

(1)

Acquisition of Water Right

364

(1)

Waters Subject to Appropriation

364

(1)

Waters From Natural Watercourses

364

(1)

Foreign or Developed Water

365

(1)

Waste or Salvaged Water

365

(2)

Perfecting the Appropriative Right

367

(1)

Intent and Notice

367

(1)

Diversion

367

(2)

Beneficial Use

369

(1)

The Prior Appropriation Right in Non-Permit Jurisdictions: The Colorado Experience

369

(1)

Statutory and Administrative Regulation and Permitting of Appropriative Rights

370

(2)

Nature and Characteristics of the Appropriative Right

372

(1)

Priority

372

(1)

Quantity

373

(1)

Transfers and Inter-Basin Diversions

374

(1)

Changes that Cause Harm to Other Appropriators

375

(1)

Storage

376

(1)

Loss of Appropriative Rights

377

(1)

Dual Systems

378

(2)

Public Rights

380

(1)

Federal Regulatory Power

380

(1)

Title to Beds Underlying Navigable Waters

380

(1)

``Navigability'' Under State Law

381

(1)

The Public Trust Doctrine

382

(1)

Non-navigable Waters

382

(1)

Sources of Water

383

(1)

Surface Water

383

(1)

Regulation of Instream Flows and Lake Levels

383

(1)

Diffused Surface Waters

384

(2)

Groundwater

386

(1)

Resolving Conflicts Among Competing Users

386

(2)

Public Administration of Groundwater Use

388

(1)

Regulation of Groundwater Pumping to Protect Surface Users and Groundwater Quality

389

(1)

Federal and Interstate Water Law

390

(10)

Federal Water Projects

390

(1)

The Navigation Servitude

390

(1)

Reclamation

391

(1)

Federal Reserved Water Rights

392

(1)

Nature and Effect of the Reserved Right

392

(1)

Purpose and Quantity of Water Reserved

393

(1)

Effect of State Water Law

394

(1)

Location of Water Reserved

395

(1)

Interstate Allocation of Water

395

(1)

Interstate Compacts

395

(1)

Adjudication

396

(4)

PART IV. ENERGY RESOURCE DISTRIBUTION AND USE

Federal Energy Policy

400

(38)

Energy Facts

401

(6)

Conventional Policies and Conventional Fuels

407

(23)

Historical Antecedents

408

(1)

1887--1900

408

(2)

1900--1920

410

(4)

1920--1933

414

(2)

The New Deal Era to World War II

416

(2)

Post-World War II to 1973

418

(1)

Coal

418

(1)

Natural Gas

419

(2)

Oil

421

(1)

Nuclear Energy

422

(1)

Presidents Carter and Reagan Test the Dominant Model, 1973--1988

423

(1)

President Carter and Centralized Energy Policy

423

(3)

President Reagan and Deregulation

426

(1)

The Dominant Model of Energy Policy

427

(3)

Alternative Fuels and Policies

430

(5)

Alternative Fuels

430

(1)

Alternative Energy Policies

431

(1)

Energy Futures

432

(2)

An Alternative Energy Policy: The Sustainable Development Model

434

(1)

Continued Reliance on the Dominant Model

435

(3)

Developing Energy Resources

438

(56)

Oil

439

(10)

Overview of the Oil Industry

440

(1)

Regulatory Overview

440

(3)

The Era of Price and Allocation Controls, 1970--1980

443

(1)

Pricing

443

(2)

Allocation

445

(1)

Offshore Exploration and Oil Spills

446

(3)

Coal

449

(12)

Overview of the Coal Industry

449

(2)

Coal Regulation

451

(1)

Coal Conversion

451

(1)

Health and Safety Concerns for Mine Workers

452

(1)

Land Reclamation

453

(2)

Clean Air and Water

455

(2)

Coal Transportation

457

(1)

Rail Transportation

457

(2)

Coal Slurry Pipelines

459

(2)

Nuclear Power

461

(9)

Overview of the Nuclear Power Industry

461

(2)

Legislative Overview

463

(4)

Nuclear Waste

467

(3)

Hydroelectric Power

470

(13)

The Hydropower Industry

470

(2)

Federal Regulation

472

(1)

Federal Jurisdiction

473

(2)

Licensing

475

(1)

Federal Power Act

475

(3)

Environmental Laws

478

(1)

Small Hydropower Projects and the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act

479

(1)

The Electric Consumer Protection Act

480

(3)

Alternative Energy Resources

483

(11)

Solar Power

484

(1)

Biomass and Alcohol Fuels

485

(1)

Geothermal

486

(2)

Synthetic Fuels

488

(3)

Conservation

491

(1)

Conclusion

492

(2)

Energy Conversion and Distribution

494

(43)

Natural Gas

495

(13)

Overview of the Natural Gas Industry

495

(2)

Regulatory Overview

497

(1)

The Natural Gas Act

497

(3)

The Natural Gas Policy Act of 1978 (NGPA)

500

(2)

Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act

502

(1)

Post NGPA Regulation

503

(1)

Take-or-Pay Contracts

504

(1)

FERC Natural Gas Initiatives

504

(4)

Electricity

508

(13)

Industry Overview

509

(2)

Regulatory Overview

511

(4)

Transmission and Power Pools

515

(1)

FERC Electricity Initiatives

516

(4)

Electricity and the Environment

520

(1)

Public Utility Regulation

521

(16)

The Theory of Natural Monopoly

522

(1)

Ratemaking Goals

523

(1)

Capital--Attraction Function

524

(1)

The Low Cost Energy Function

524

(1)

The Efficiency-Incentive Function

525

(1)

The Demand-Control or Consumer Rationing Function

526

(2)

The Income-Distributive Function

528

(1)

The Rate Formula

529

(1)

Operating Expenses

529

(1)

Rate Base

530

(3)

Rate of Return

533

(1)

Contemporary Ratemaking Issues

533

(1)

Marginal Cost Pricing

534

(1)

Incentive Rates

535

(1)

New Utility Markets

536

(1)

Index

537

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Energy and Natural Resources Law in a Nutshell

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials