Esau's Plant Anatomy Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development

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ISBN: 9780471738435 | 0471738433
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 9/12/2006

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This revision of the now classic Esau's Plant Anatomy offers a completely updated review of the structure, function, and development of meristems, cells, and tissues of the plant body. The text follows a logical structure-based organization. Beginning with a general overview, chapters then cover the protoplast, cell wall, and meristems, through to phloem, periderm, and secretory structures.

Preface

Acknowledgments

xvii

General References

xix

Structure and Development of the Plant Body---An Overview

(14)

Internal Organization of the Plant Body

(3)

The Body of a Vascular Plant Is Composed of Three Tissue Systems

(1)

Structurally Stem, Leaf, and Root Differ Primarily in the Relative Distribution of the Vascular and Ground Tissues

(3)

Summary of Types of Cells and Tissues

(1)

Development of the Plant Body

(5)

The Body Plan of the Plant Is Established during Embryogenesis

(4)

With Germination of the Seed, the Embryo Resumes Growth and Gradually Develops into an Adult Plant

(1)

References

(3)

The Protoplast: Plasma Membrane, Nucleus, and Cytoplasmic Organelles

(30)

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

(1)

Cytoplasm

(2)

Plasma Membrane

(3)

Nucleus

(1)

Cell Cycle

(2)

Plastids

(6)

Chloroplasts Contain Chlorophyll and Carotenoid Pigments

(1)

Chromoplasts Contain Only Carotenoid Pigments

(2)

Leucoplasts Are Nonpigmented Plastids

(1)

All Plastids Are Derived Initially from Proplastids

(3)

Mitochondria

(2)

Peroxisomes

(1)

Vacuoles

(2)

Ribosomes

(1)

References

(8)

The Protoplast: Endomembrane System, Secretory Pathways, Cytoskeleton, and Stored Compounds

(20)

Endomembrane System

(4)

The Endoplasmic Reticulum Is a Continuous, Three-dimensional Membrane System That Permeates the Entire Cytosol

(3)

The Golgi Apparatus Is a Highly Polarized Membrane System Involved in Secretion

(1)

Cytoskeleton

(1)

Microtubules Are Cylindrical Structures Composed of Tubulin Subunits

(3)

Actin Filaments Consist of Two Linear Chains of Actin Molecules in the Form of a Helix

(2)

Stored Compounds

(1)

Starch Develops in the Form of Grains in Plastids

(6)

The Site of Protein Body Assembly Depends on Protein Composition

(1)

Oil Bodies Bud from Smooth ER Membranes by an Oleosin-mediated Process

(1)

Tannins Typically Occur in Vacuoles but Also Are Found in Cell Walls

(1)

Crystals of Calcium Oxalate Usually Develop in Vacuoles but Also Are Found in the Cell Wall and Cuticle

(2)

Silica Most Commonly Is Deposited in Cell Walls

(1)

References

(7)

Cell Wall

(38)

Macromolecular Components of the Cell Wall

(5)

Cellulose Is the Principal Component of Plant Cell Walls

(1)

The Cellulose Microfibrils Are Embedded in a Matrix of Noncellulosic Molecules

(1)

Principal Hemicelluoses

(1)

Pectins

(1)

Proteins

(1)

Callose Is a Widely Distributed Cell Wall Polysaccharide

(1)

Lignins Are Phenolic Polymers Deposited Mainly in Cell Walls of Supporting and Conducting Tissues

(2)

Cutin and Suberin Are Insoluble Lipid Polymers Found Most Commonly in the Protective Surface Tissues of the Plant

(1)

Cell Wall Layers

(3)

The Middle Lamella Frequently Is Difficult to Distinguish from the Primary Wall

(1)

The Primary Wall Is Deposited While the Cell Is Increasing in Size

(1)

The Secondary Wall Is Deposited inside the Primary Wall Largely, If Not Entirely, after the Primary Wall Has Stopped Increasing in Surface Area

(2)

Pits and Primary Pit-Fields

(2)

Origin of Cell Wall during Cell Division

(4)

Cytokinesis Occurs by the Formation of a Phragmoplast and Cell Plate

(2)

Initially Callose Is the Principal Cell Wall Polysaccharide Present in the Developing Cell Plate

(1)

The Preprophase Band Predicts the Plane of the Future Cell Plate

(2)

Growth of the Cell Wall

(3)

The Orientation of Cellulose Microfibrils within the Primary Wall Influences the Direction of Cell Expansion

(1)

When Considering the Mechanism of Wall Growth, It Is Necessary to Distinguish between Growth in Surface (Wall Expansion) and Growth in Thickness

(1)

Expansion of the Primary Cell Wall

(1)

Cessation of Wall Expansion

(1)

Intercellular Spaces

(1)

Plasmodesmata

(6)

Plasmodesmata May Be Classified as Primary or Secondary According to Their Origin

(2)

Plasmodesmata Contain Two Types of Membranes: Plasma Membrane and Desmotubule

(1)

Plasmodesmata Enable Cells to Communicate

(2)

The Symplast Undergoes Reorganization throughout the Course of Plant Growth and Development

(1)

References

(12)

Meristems and Differentiation

103

(30)

Meristems

103

(7)

Classification of Meristems

104

(1)

A Common Classification of Meristems Is Based on Their Position in the Plant Body

104

(2)

Meristems Are Also Classified According to the Nature of Cells That Give Origin to Their Initial Cells

106

(1)

Characteristics of Meristematic Cells

106

(1)

Growth Patterns in Meristems

107

(1)

Meristematic Activity and Plant Growth

108

(2)

Differentiation

110

(5)

Terms and Concepts

110

(1)

Senescence (Programmed Cell Death)

111

(2)

Cellular Changes in Differentiation

113

(1)

A Cytologic Phenomenon Commonly Observed in Differentiating Cells of Angiosperms Is Endopolyploidy

113

(1)

One of the Early Visible Changes in Differentiating Tissues Is the Unequal Increase in Cell Size

113

(1)

Intercellular Adjustment in Differentiating Tissue Involves Coordinated and Intrusive Growth

114

(1)

Causal Factors in Differentiation

115

(5)

Tissue Culture Techniques Have Been Useful for the Determination of Requirements for Growth and Differentiation

115

(2)

The Analysis of Genetic Mosaics Can Reveal Patterns of Cell Division and Cell Fate in Developing Plants

117

(1)

Gene Technologies Have Dramatically Increased Our Understanding of Plant Development

117

(2)

Polarity Is a Key Component of Biological Pattern Formation and Is Related to the Phenomenon of Gradients

119

(1)

Plant Cells Differentiate According to Position

119

(1)

Plant Hormones

120

(3)

Auxins

121

(1)

Cytokinins

122

(1)

Ethylene

123

(1)

Abscisic Acid

123

(1)

Gibberellins

123

(1)

References

123

(10)

Apical Meristems

133

(42)

Evolution of the Concept of Apical Organization

134

(2)

Apical Meristems Originally Were Envisioned as Having a Single Initial Cell

134

(1)

The Apical-Cell Theory Was Superseded by the Histogen Theory

134

(1)

The Tunica-Corpus Concept of Apical Organization Applies Largely to Angiosperms

135

(1)

The Shoot Apices of Most Gymnosperms and Angiosperms Show a Cytohistological Zonation

136

(1)

Inquiries into the Identity of Apical Initials

136

(2)

Vegetative Shoot Apex

138

(5)

The Presence of an Apical Cell Is Characteristic of Shoot Apices in Seedless Vascular Plants

139

(1)

The Zonation Found in the Ginkgo Apex Has Served as a Basis for the Interpretation of Shoot Apices in Other Gymnosperms

140

(1)

The Presence of a Zonation Superimposed on a Tunica-Corpus Configuration Is Characteristic of Angiosperm Shoot Apices

141

(2)

The Vegetative Shoot Apex of Arabidopsis thaliana

143

(2)

Origin of Leaves

145

(4)

Throughout the Vegetative Period the Shoot Apical Meristem Produces Leaves in a Regular Order

145

(2)

The Initiation of a Leaf Primordium Is Associated with an Increase in the Frequency of Periclinal Divisions at the Initiation Site

147

(2)

Leaf Primordia Arise at Sites That Are Correlated with the Phyllotaxis of the Shoot

149

(1)

Origin of Branches

149

(3)

In Most Seed Plants Axillary Meristems Originate from Detached Meristems

150

(2)

Shoots May Develop from Adventitious Buds

152

(1)

Root Apex

152

(8)

Apical Organization in Roots May Be either Open or Closed

153

(4)

The Quiescent Center Is Not Completely Devoid of Divisions under Normal Conditions

157

(3)

The Root Apex of Arabidopsis thaliana

160

(2)

Growth of the Root Tip

162

(3)

References

165

(10)

Parenchyma and Collenchyma

175

(16)

Parenchyma

175

(7)

Parenchyma Cells May Occur in Continuous Masses as Parenchyma Tissue or Be Associated with Other Cell Types in Morphologically Heterogeneous Tissues

176

(1)

The Contents of Parenchyma Cells Are a Reflection of the Activities of the Cells

177

(1)

The Cell Walls of Parenchyma Cells May Be Thick or Thin

178

(1)

Some Parenchyma Cells---Transfer Cells---Contain Wall Ingrowths

179

(2)

Parenchyma Cells Vary Greatly in Shape and Arrangement

181

(1)

Some Parenchyma Tissue---Aerenchyma---Contains Particularly Large Intercellular Spaces

182

(1)

Collenchyma

183

(4)

The Structure of the Cell Walls of Collenchyma Is the Most Distinctive Characteristic of This Tissue

184

(1)

Collenchyma Characteristically Occurs in a Peripheral Position

185

(2)

Collenchyma Appears to Be Particularly Well Adapted for Support of Growing Leaves and Stems

187

(1)

References

187

(4)

Sclerenchyma

191

(20)

Fibers

192

(6)

Fibers Are Widely Distributed in the Plant Body

192

(2)

Fibers May Be Divided into Two Large Groups, Xylary and Extraxylary

194

(2)

Both Xylary and Extraxylary Fibers May Be Septate or Gelatinous

196

(1)

Commercial Fibers Are Separated into Soft Fibers and Hard Fibers

197

(1)

Sclereids

198

(4)

Based on Shape and Size, Sclereids May Be Classified into a Number of Types

198

(1)

Sclereids Like Fibers Are Widely Distributed in the Plant Body

199

(1)

Sclereids in Stems

200

(1)

Sclereids in Leaves

200

(1)

Sclereids in Fruits

201

(1)

Sclereids in Seeds

201

(1)

Origin and Development of Fibers and Sclereids

202

(3)

Factors Controlling Development of Fibers and Sclereids

205

(2)

References

207

(4)

Epidermis

211

(44)

Ordinary Epidermal Cells

214

(4)

Epidermal Cell Walls Vary in Thickness

214

(1)

The Most Distinctive Feature of the Outer Epidermal Wall Is the Presence of a Cuticle

215

(3)

Stomata

218

(11)

Stomata Occur on All Aerial Parts of the Primary Plant Body

218

(3)

Guard Cells Are Generally Kidney-shaped

221

(1)

Guard Cells Typically Have Unevenly Thickened Walls with Radially Arranged Cellulose Microfibrils

222

(2)

Blue Light and Abscisic Acid Are Important Signals in the Control of Stomatal Movement

224

(1)

Development of Stomatal Complexes Involves One or More Asymmetric Cell Divisions

225

(3)

Different Developmental Sequences Result in Different Configurations of Stomatal Complexes

228

(1)

Trichomes

229

(8)

Trichomes Have a Variety of Functions

229

(1)

Trichomes May Be Classified into Different Morphological Categories

230

(1)

A Trichome Is Initiated as a Protuberance from an Epidermal Cell

230

(1)

The Cotton Fiber

230

(4)

Root Hairs

234

(1)

The Arabidopsis Trichome

235

(2)

Cell Patterning in the Epidermis

237

(2)

The Spatial Distribution of Stomata and Trichomes in Leaves Is Nonrandom

237

(1)

There Are Three Main Types of Patterning in the Epidermis of Angiosperm Roots

238

(1)

Other Specialized Epidermal Cells

239

(4)

Silica and Cork Cells Frequently Occur Together in Pairs

239

(2)

Bulliform Cells Are Highly Vacuolated Cells

241

(1)

Some Epidermal Hairs Contain Cystoliths

242

(1)

References

243

(12)

Xylem: Cell Types and Developmental Aspects

255

(36)

Cell Types of the Xylem

256

(12)

Tracheary Elements---Tracheids and Vessel Elements---Are the Conducting Cells of the Xylem

256

(4)

The Secondary Walls of Most Tracheary Elements Contain Pits

260

(3)

Vessels Are More Efficient Conduits of Water Than Are Tracheids

263

(3)

Fibers Are Specialized as Supporting Elements in the Xylem

266

(1)

Living Parenchyma Cells Occur in Both the Primary and Secondary Xylem

266

(1)

In Some Species the Parenchyma Cells Develop Protrusions---Tyloses---That Enter the Vessels

267

(1)

Phylogenetic Specialization of Tracheary Elements and Fibers

268

(3)

The Major Trends in the Evolution of the Vessel Element Are Correlated with Decrease in Vessel Element Length

268

(2)

Deviations Exist in Trends of Vessel Element Evolution

270

(1)

Like Vessel Elements and Tracheids, Fibers Have Undergone a Phylogenetic Shortening

271

(1)

Primary Xylem

271

(5)

Some Developmental and Structural Differences Exist between the Earlier and Later Formed Parts of the Primary Xylem

271

(2)

The Primary Tracheary Elements Have a Variety of Secondary Wall Thickenings

273

(3)

Tracheary Element Differentiation

276

(7)

Plant Hormones Are Involved in the Differentiation of Tracheary Elements

280

(1)

Isolated Mesophyll Cells in Culture Can Transdifferentiate Directly into Tracheary Elements

281

(2)

References

283

(8)

Xylem: Secondary Xylem and Variations in Wood Structure

291

(32)

Basic Structure of Secondary Xylem

293

(9)

The Secondary Xylem Consists of Two Distinct Systems of Cells, Axial and Radial

293

(1)

Some Woods Are Storied and Others Are Nonstoried

294

(1)

Growth Rings Result from the Periodic Activity of the Vascular Cambium

294

(3)

As Wood Becomes Older, It Gradually Becomes Nonfunctional in Conduction and Storage

297

(2)

Reaction Wood Is a Type of Wood That Develops in Branches and Learning or Crooked Stems

299

(3)

Woods

302

(10)

The Wood of Conifers Is Relatively Simple in Structure

302

(1)

The Axial System of Conifer Woods Consists Mostly or Entirely of Tracheids

302

(1)

The Rays of Conifers May Consist of Both Parenchyma Cells and Tracheids

303

(1)

The Wood of Many Conifers Contains Resin Ducts

304

(2)

The Wood of Angiosperms Is More Complex and Varied Than That of Conifers

306

(1)

On the Basis of Porosity, Two Main Types of Angiosperm Wood Are Recognized: Diffuse-porous and Ring-porous

307

(2)

The Distribution of Axial Parenchyma Shows Many Intergrading Patterns

309

(1)

The Rays of Angiosperms Typically Contain Only Parenchyma Cells

310

(2)

Intercellular Spaces Similar to the Resin Ducts of Gymnosperms Occur in Angiosperm Woods

312

(1)

Some Aspects of Secondary Xylem Development

312

(3)

Identification of Wood

315

(1)

References

316

(7)

Vascular Cambium

323

(34)

Organization of the Cambium

323

(3)

The Vascular Cambium Contains Two Types of Initials: Fusiform Initials and Ray Initials

323

(2)

The Cambium May Be Storied or Nonstoried

325

(1)

Formation of Secondary Xylem and Secondary Phloem

326

(1)

Initials Versus Their Immediate Derivatives

327

(3)

Developmental Changes

330

(6)

Formation of New Ray Initials from Fusiform Initials or Their Segments Is a Common Phenomenon

332

(3)

Domains Can Be Recognized within the Cambium

335

(1)

Seasonal Changes in Cambial Cell Ultrastructure

336

(2)

Cytokinesis of Fusiform Cells

338

(3)

Seasonal Activity

341

(5)

The Size of the Xylem Increment Produced during One Year Generally Exceeds That of the Phloem

343

(1)

A Distinct Seasonality in Cambial Activity Also Occurs in Many Tropical Regions

344

(2)

Causal Relations in Cambial Activity

346

(2)

References

348

(9)

Phloem: Cell Types and Developmental Aspects

357

(50)

Cell Types of the Phloem

359

(1)

The Angiospermous Sieve-Tube Element

360

(12)

In Some Taxa the Sieve-Tube Element Walls Are Remarkably Thick

361

(3)

Sieve Plates Usually Occur on End Walls

364

(1)

Callose Apparently Plays a Role in Sieve-Pore Development

364

(1)

Changes in the Appearance of the Plastids and the Appearance of P-protein Are Early Indicators of Sieve-Tube Element Development

365

(7)

Nuclear Degeneration May Be Chromatolytic or Pycnotic

372

(1)

Companion Cells

372

(7)

The Mechanism of Phloem Transport in Angiosperms

379

(3)

The Source Leaf and Minor Vein Phloem

382

(4)

Several Types of Minor Veins Occur in Dicotyledonous Leaves

384

(1)

Type 1 Species with Specialized Companion Cells, Termed Intermediary Cells, Are Symplastic Loaders

384

(1)

Species with Type 2 Minor Veins Are Apoplastic Loaders

385

(1)

The Collection of Photoassimilate by the Minor Veins in Some Leaves May Not Involve an Active Step

385

(1)

Some Minor Veins Contain More Than One Kind of Companion Cell

385

(1)

The Minor Veins in Leaf Blades of the Poaceae Contain Two Types of Metaphloem Sieve Tubes

386

(1)

The Gymnospermous Sieve Cell

386

(4)

The Walls of Sieve Cells Are Characterized as Primary

387

(1)

Callose Does Not Play a Role in Sieve-Pore Development in Gymnosperms

387

(1)

Little Variation Exists in Sieve-Cell Differentiation among Gymnosperms

388

(2)

Strasburger Cells

390

(1)

The Mechanism of Phloem Transport in Gymnosperms

390

(1)

Parenchyma Cells

391

(1)

Sclerenchyma Cells

391

(1)

Longevity of Sieve Elements

391

(1)

Trends in Specialization of Sieve-Tube Elements

392

(1)

Sieve Elements of Seedless Vascular Plants

393

(1)

Primary Phloem

393

(5)

References

398

(9)

Phloem: Secondary Phloem and Variations in Its Structure

407

(20)

Conifer Phloem

409

(3)

Angiosperm Phloem

412

(5)

The Patterns Formed by the Fibers Can Be of Taxonomic Significance

413

(2)

Secondary Sieve-Tube Elements Show Considerable Variation in Form and Distribution

415

(2)

Differentiation in the Secondary Phloem

417

(5)

Sclerenchyma Cells in the Secondary Phloem Commonly Are Classified as Fibers, Sclereids, and Fiber-Sclereids

418

(2)

The Conducting Phloem Constitutes Only a Small Part of the Inner Bark

420

(2)

Nonconducting Phloem

422

(2)

The Nonconducting Phloem Differs Structurally from the Conducting Phloem

423

(1)

Dilatation Is the Means by Which the Phloem Is Adjusted to the Increase in Circumference of the Axis Resulting from Secondary Growth

423

(1)

References

424

(3)

Periderm

427

(20)

Occurrence

427

(2)

Characteristics of the Components

429

(4)

The Phellogen Is Relatively Simple in Structure

429

(1)

Several Kinds of Phellem Cells May Arise from the Phellogen

429

(2)

Considerable Variation Exists in the Width and Composition of Phelloderm

431

(2)

Development of Periderm

433

(4)

The Sites of Origin of the Phellogen Are Varied

433

(1)

The Phellogen Is Initiated by Divisions of Various Kinds of Cells

434

(1)

The Time of Appearance of the First and Subsequent Periderms Varies

434

(3)

Morphology of Periderm and Rhytidome

437

(1)

Polyderm

438

(1)

Protective Tissue in Monocotyledons

438

(1)

Wound Periderm

438

(2)

Lenticels

440

(2)

Three Structural Types of Lenticels Are Recognized in Woody Angiosperms

441

(1)

The First Lenticels Frequently Appear under Stomata

442

(1)

References

442

(5)

External Secretory Structures

447

(26)

Salt Glands

449

(2)

Salt Bladders Secrete Ions into a Large Central Vacuole

449

(1)

Other Glands Secrete Salt Directly to the Outside

449

(1)

The Two-celled Glands of the Poaceae

449

(1)

The Multicellular Glands of Eudicotyledons

450

(1)

Hydathodes

451

(1)

Nectaries

452

(7)

The Nectaries of Lonicera japonica Exude Nectar from Unicellular Trichomes

455

(1)

The Nectaries of Abutilon striatum Exude Nectar from Multicellular Trichomes

456

(1)

The Nectaries of Vicia faba Exude Nectar via Stomata

456

(1)

The Most Common Sugars in Nectar Are Sucrose, Glucose, and Fructose

456

(3)

Structures Intermediate between Nectaries and Hydathodes Also Exist

459

(1)

Colleters

459

(2)

Osmophores

461

(1)

Glandular Trichomes Secreting Lipophilic Substances

462

(1)

Glandular Trichome Development

463

(2)

The Glandular Structures of Carnivorous Plants

465

(1)

Stinging Hairs

466

(1)

References

466

(7)

Internal Secretory Structures

473

(30)

Internal Secretory Cells

473

(5)

Oil Cells Secrete Their Oils into an Oil Cavity

475

(1)

Mucilage Cells Deposit Their Mucilage between the Protoplast and the Cellulosic Cell Wall

476

(1)

Tannin Is the Most Conspicuous Inclusion in Numerous Secretory Cells

477

(1)

Secretory Cavities and Ducts

478

(5)

The Best-Known Secretory Ducts Are the Resin Ducts of Conifers

478

(1)

Development of Secretory Cavities Appears to Be Schizogenous

479

(2)

Secretory Ducts and Cavities May Arise under the Stimulus of Injury

481

(1)

Kino Veins Are a Special Type of Traumatic Duct

482

(1)

Laticifers

483

(10)

On the Basis of Their Structure, Laticifers Are Grouped in Two Major Classes: Articulated and Nonarticulated

484

(2)

Latex Varies in Appearance and in Composition

486

(1)

Articulated and Nonarticulated Laticifers Apparently Differ from One Another Cytologically

487

(2)

Laticifers Are Widely Distributed in the Plant Body, Reflecting Their Mode of Development

489

(1)

Nonarticulated Laticifers

489

(2)

Articulated Laticifers

491

(2)

The Principal Source of Commercial Rubber Is the Bark of the Para Rubber Tree, Hevea brasiliensis

493

(2)

The Function of Laticifers Is Not Clear

495

(1)

References

495

(8)

Addendum: Other Pertinent References Not Cited in the Text

503

(18)

Glossary

521

(20)

Author Index

541

(26)

Subject Index

567

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Esau's Plant Anatomy Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

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