Essentials of Logic

Rendered from the 11th Edition of Copi/Cohen,Introduction to Logic, the most respected introductory logic book on the market, this concise version presents a simplified yet rigorous introduction to the study of logic.It covers all major topics and approaches, using a three-part organization that outlines specific topics under logic and language, deduction, and induction.For individuals intrigued by the formal study of logic.

Preface

ix

Acknowledgments

xi

Basic Logical Concepts

1

(45)

What Logic Is

1

(1)

Propositions and Sentences

1

(2)

Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions

3

(4)

Arguments and Explanations

7

(5)

Recognizing Arguments

12

(12)

Premise- and Conclusion-Indicators

12

(4)

Arguments in Context

16

(1)

Premises Not in Declarative Form

16

(2)

Unstated Propositions

18

(6)

Deduction and Validity

24

(1)

Validity and Truth

25

(4)

Induction and Probability

29

(2)

Analyzing Arguments

31

(5)

Paraphrasing

31

(1)

Diagramming Arguments

32

(2)

Interwoven Arguments

34

(2)

Complex Argumentative Passages

36

(10)

Essentials of Chapter 1

43

(3)

Informal Fallacies

46

(54)

What Is a Fallacy?

46

(2)

Fallacies of Relevance

48

(19)

Argument from Ignorance (argumentum ad ignoratiam)

48

(3)

Appeal to Illegitimate Authority (argumentum ad verecundiam)

51

(3)

Argument Against the Person (Personal Attack, argumentum ad hominem)

54

(3)

Appeal to Emotion (Mob Appeal, argumentum ad populum)

57

(1)

Appeal to Pity (argumentum ad misericordiam)

58

(1)

Appeal to Force (argumentum ad baculum)

59

(1)

Irrelevant Conclusion (ignoratio elenchi; non sequitur)

60

(7)

Fallacies of Presumption

67

(12)

Complex Question

67

(1)

False Cause (post hoe, ergo propter hoc; non causa pro causa)

68

(2)

Begging the Question (petitio principii)

70

(1)

Accident

71

(2)

Converse Accident (Hasty Generalization)

73

(1)

Suppressed Evidence

74

(1)

False Dichotomy

75

(4)

Fallacies of Ambiguity

79

(21)

Equivocation

79

(1)

Amphiboly

80

(2)

Accent

82

(1)

Composition

83

(2)

Division

85

(12)

Essentials of Chapter 2

97

(3)

Categorical Propositions

100

(36)

Categorical Logic

100

(1)

Categorical Propositions and Classes

101

(5)

Symbolism and Venn Diagrams for Categorical Propositions

106

(4)

Distribution

110

(3)

Existential Import

113

(2)

The Aristotelian Square of Opposition and Immediate Inferences

115

(7)

Contradictories

116

(1)

Contraries

116

(1)

Subcontraries

117

(1)

Subalternation

118

(4)

The Boolean Square of Opposition

122

(1)

Logical Equivalence and Immediate Inferences

123

(13)

Conversion

123

(2)

Obversion

125

(3)

Contraposition

128

(5)

Essentials of Chapter 3

133

(3)

Categorical Syllogisms

136

(28)

Standard Form Categorical Syllogisms

136

(5)

Major, Minor, and Middle Terms

136

(1)

Mood

137

(1)

Figure

138

(3)

The Nature of Syllogistic Arguments

141

(2)

Venn Diagram Technique for Testing Syllogisms

143

(9)

Syllogistic Rules and Syllogistic Fallacies

152

(12)

Essentials of Chapter 4

161

(3)

Arguments in Ordinary Language

164

(27)

Syllogistic Arguments in Ordinary Language

164

(1)

Reducing the Number of Terms in a Syllogistic Argument

165

(3)

Translating Categorical Propositions into Standard Form

168

(14)

Singular Propositions

169

(2)

Categorical Propositions with Adjectives or Adjectival Phrases as Predicates

171

(1)

Categorical Propositions with Verbs Other Than the Standard Form Copula To Be

172

(1)

Categorical Propositions in Nonstandard Order

173

(1)

Categorical Propositions with Nonstandard Quantifiers

174

(1)

Exclusive Propositions

175

(2)

Propositions Without Quantifiers

177

(1)

Propositions Not in Standard Form that Have Logically Equivalent Standard Form Alternatives

177

(1)

Exceptive Propositions

178

(1)

More Complex Quantifiers

179

(3)

Uniform Translation

182

(2)

Enthymemes

184

(7)

Essentials of Chapter 5

190

(1)

Symbolic Logic

191

(53)

The Symbolic Language of Modern Logic

191

(1)

Symbolese 101: The Language of Propositional Logic

192

(16)

Negation

193

(1)

Conjunction

194

(1)

Disjunction

195

(1)

Material Implication (Material Conditionality)

196

(1)

Biconditionals (Material Equivalence)

197

(1)

Grouping Indicators

197

(11)

Truth Tables as Tools for Analyzing Compound Propositions

208

(7)

Tautologous, Contradictory, and Contingent Statement Forms

215

(6)

Truth Tables as a Test for the Validity of Arguments

221

(12)

Some Common Valid Argument Forms

225

(2)

Some Common Invalid Argument Forms

227

(1)

More Complex Arguments

228

(5)

Incomplete and Reverse Truth Tables

233

(8)

Incomplete Truth Tables

233

(2)

Reverse Truth Tables

235

(6)

Arguments, Conditionals, and Tautologies

241

(3)

Essentials of Chapter 6

241

(3)

The Method of Deduction

244

(51)

Natural Deduction Versus Truth Tables

244

(1)

Formal Proofs of Validity

245

(12)

The Rule of Replacement (1)

257

(8)

The Rule of Replacement (2)

265

(15)

Conditional Proof

280

(5)

Indirect Proof

285

(10)

Essentials of Chapter 7

293

(2)

Quantification Theory

295

(35)

When Propositional Logic Is Not Enough

295

(1)

Symbolese 102: The Language of Quantificational Logic

296

(10)

Singular Propositions, Subjects, and Predicates

296

(2)

Universal and Particular Propositions

298

(2)

And Sometimes the Statements Are More Complex

300

(6)

Proving Validity

306

(10)

Conditional and Indirect Proof

316

(5)

Proving Invalidity

321

(9)

Essentials of Chapter 8

329

(1)

Induction

330

(41)

Introduction to Induction

330

(4)

Arguments by Analogy

334

(5)

Appraising Arguments by Analogy

339

(8)

Explanations and Hypotheses

347

(7)

Arguments to the Best Explanation

354

(17)

Essentials of Chapter 9

367

(4)

Appendix: Truth Trees

371

(12)

Propositional Logic

371

(6)

Quantificational Logic

377

(6)

Essentials of the Appendix

382

(1)

Solutions to the Odd-Numbered Problems

383

(56)

Glossary/Index

439

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Summary

Table of Contents

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