Estuarine Indicators

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ISBN: 9780849328220 | 0849328225
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 12/28/2004

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Acknowledging the present inability to determine objectively the status and trends among estuarine ecosystems, the environmental research community has recently stepped up efforts to develop and evaluate meaningful estuarine indicators. This goal requires the effort of researchers from a broad spectrum of disciplines. In order to expedite this initiative, many of the world's leading estuarine scientists came together to present their views at the 2003 Estuarine Indicators Workshop.Derived from this conference of leading estuarine scientists, Estuarine Indicators presents the principles, concepts, practical use, and application of indicators in estuarine research and management practices. Topics include: the theory behind environmental indicators and their presumed attributes; the methods and protocols of indicator development and evaluation; a presentation of effective and ineffective indicator examples; and discussions of the future directions in research and management practices.This is an ideal reference for researchers, scientists, and students from any field dealing with estuaries and estuarine ecosystems. Its introductory-level chapters are accessible to novices and seasoned experts alike, and the applications and interpretation of research data suit the needs of environmental managers. This is a truly multidisciplinary, comprehensive compendium upon which future research will undoubtedly be built.

The Quest for the ``Perfect'' Estuarine Indicator: An Introduction

(4)

Stephen A. Bortone

Environmental Indicators

(1)

Estuarine Indicators

(1)

Goal of an Effective Estuarine Indicator

(3)

Using Multiple Response Bioindicators to Assess the Health of Estuarine Ecosystems: An Operational Framework

(14)

S. Marshall Adams

Introduction

(1)

Characteristics of Bioindicators

(2)

Application of Bioindicators in Estuarine Ecosystems

(8)

Direct vs. Indirect Effects

(1)

Temporal Response Scaling

(2)

Establishment of Causality

(1)

Environmental Profiling and Diagnosis

(2)

Integrated Effects Assessment

(2)

Conclusions and Synthesis

(1)

References

(3)

Physical Processes Affecting Estuarine Health

(14)

Jon Hubertz

Xiaohong Huang

Venkat Kolluru

John Edinger

Introduction

(1)

Background

(5)

Physical Processes

(1)

Types of Currents

(1)

Tidal

(2)

River Inflows

(1)

Wind-Induced Currents

(1)

Other Physical Processes

(1)

Approach

(1)

Numerical Modeling System --- GEMSS

(1)

Applications

(1)

Results

(2)

The Salinity Mixing Problem

(2)

Residence/Flushing Time Analysis in Indian River/Rehoboth Bay, Delaware

(1)

Beyond Physical Processes --- Water Quality Modeling

(2)

Conclusions

(2)

References

(2)

Using Statistical Models to Simulate Salinity Variability in Estuaries

(20)

Frank E. Marshall III

Introduction

(1)

Methods and Materials

(7)

Study Area and Data

(1)

Model Development

(4)

Model Runs for Operational Evaluations

(2)

Results

(6)

Discussion

(3)

Conclusions

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(2)

Using Satellite Imagery and Environmental Monitoring to Interpret Oceanographic Influences on Estuarine and Coastal Waters

(10)

Brian D. Keller

Billy D. Causey

Introduction

(1)

The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

(1)

Sanctuary Monitoring Programs

(1)

The 2002 Blackwater Event

(2)

The 2003 Blackwater Event

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(4)

Development and Use of Assessment Techniques for Coastal Sediments

(16)

Edward R. Long

Gail M. Sloane

Introduction

(1)

Classification of Sediment Contamination and Interpretive Tools and Guidelines

(1)

Florida Sediment Quality Guidelines and Interpretive Tools

(1)

U.S. and International Sediment Quality Guidelines

(1)

Incidence of Chemical Contamination of Sediments

(3)

Classification of Toxicity of Sediments

(1)

Spatial Extent of Sediment Toxicity

(2)

Classification of Sediment Quality with Benthic Indices

(1)

Spatial Extent of Degraded Benthic Communities

(1)

Discussion and Conclusions

(1)

References

(5)

Sediment Habitat Assessment for Targeted Near-Coastal Areas

(20)

Michael A. Lewis

Introduction

(1)

Methods

(3)

Study Areas

(1)

Sediment Collection and Preparation

(2)

Particle Size Distribution and Total Organic Carbon

(1)

Sediment Chemical Quality

(1)

Sediment Biological Quality

(1)

Whole Sediment and Pore Water Toxicity: Animal Species

(1)

Whole Sediment Phytotoxicity: Early Seedling Growth

(1)

Microbial Genotoxicity

(1)

Benthic Community Composition

(1)

Results

(7)

Particle Size Distribution and Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

(1)

Chemical Quality

(1)

Effects-Based Exceedances

(1)

Geochemically Based Enrichment

(1)

Acute and Chronic Toxicities

(1)

Microbial Genotoxicity

(1)

Phytotoxicity: Early Seedling Growth

(4)

Benthic Macroinvertebrate Community

(1)

Temporal Variability

(1)

Discussion

(5)

Stressor Ranking

(1)

Metric Concordance

(2)

Data Comparisons

(2)

Recommendations

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(3)

Bacterial Communities as Indicators of Estuarine and Sediment Conditions

(12)

Eric C. Milbrandt

Introduction

(2)

Case Study

101

(1)

Materials and Methods

102

(1)

Results

103

(3)

Discussion

106

(1)

Acknowledgments

107

(1)

References

107

(4)

Microbial Biofilms as Integrative Sensors of Environmental Quality

111

(16)

Richard A. Snyder

Michael A. Lewis

Andreas Nocker

Joe E. Lepo

Introduction

111

(1)

Biofilm Ecology

112

(2)

Biofilms as Estuarine Indicators

114

(1)

Sampler Design

114

(1)

Estuarine Periphyton as an Environmental Diagnostic Indicator

115

(2)

Analysis of Spatial Patterns of Biofilm Growth

117

(2)

Molecular Approaches

119

(3)

Summary

122

(1)

Acknowledgments

122

(1)

References

122

(5)

Diatom Indicators of Ecosystem Change in Subtropical Coastal Wetlands

127

(18)

Evelyn Gaiser

Anna Wachnicka

Pablo Ruiz

Franco Tobias

Michael Ross

Introduction

127

(1)

Methods

128

(3)

Study Site

128

(2)

Data Collection and Processing

130

(1)

Data Analysis

130

(1)

Results

131

(6)

Vegetation

131

(1)

Environmental Variation

131

(1)

Periphyton Biomass and TP Content

132

(1)

Algal Community Composition

133

(4)

Discussion

137

(2)

Applications

139

(1)

Appendix

140

(2)

References

142

(3)

Using Microalgal Indicators to Assess Human- and Climate-Induced Ecological Change in Estuaries

145

(30)

Hans W. Paerl

Julianne Dyble

James L. Pinckney

Lexia M. Valdes

David F. Millie

Pia H. Moisander

James T. Morris

Brian Bendis

Michael F. Piehler

Introduction

145

(1)

Methods

146

(5)

Looking into the ``Green Box'': Diagnostic Pigment Indicators of Phytoplankton Community Composition and Activity

146

(2)

Use of Neural Networks

148

(1)

Molecular Approaches for Taxa-Specific Identification and Characterization

149

(2)

Results and Discussion

151

(15)

Case Studies

151

(1)

Impacts of Human and Climatic Perturbations in the Neuse River Estuary, North Carolina

151

(4)

Galveston Bay, Texas: The Case of the ``Pink Oysters''

155

(2)

Cyanobacterial Bloom Dynamics in the St. Johns River System, Florida

157

(5)

Indicator Deployment and Data Acquisition

162

(4)

Concluding Remarks

166

(1)

Acknowledgments

167

(1)

References

168

(4)

Further Reading

172

(3)

A Hierarchical Approach to the Evaluation of Variability in Ecoindicators of the Seagrass Thalassia testudinum

175

(18)

John W. Hackney

Michael J. Durako

Introduction

175

(1)

Materials and Methods

176

(3)

Study Area

176

(1)

Sampling Methodology

177

(1)

Statistical Analyses

178

(1)

Results

179

(8)

Biological Parameters

179

(6)

Principal Components Analysis

185

(2)

Discussion

187

(2)

Conclusions

189

(1)

Acknowledgments

190

(1)

References

190

(3)

Evaluating Indicators of Seagrass Stress to Light

193

(18)

Patrick D. Biber

Hans W. Paerl

Charles L. Gallegos

W. Judson Kenworthy

Introduction

193

(3)

Bio-Optical Modeling

194

(1)

Plant Physiology

195

(1)

Methods

196

(2)

Calibrating a Bio-Optical Model

196

(1)

Light-Stress Experiments

197

(1)

Results

198

(5)

Water Quality Monitoring; North River, North Carolina

198

(2)

Light Stress Experiment

200

(3)

Discussion

203

(2)

Water Quality Stress Indicators

203

(1)

Plant Physiology Indicators

204

(1)

Conclusions

205

(1)

Acknowledgments

206

(1)

References

207

(4)

Significance of Considering Multiple Environmental Variables When Using Habitat as an Indicator of Estuarine Condition

211

(18)

Melody J. Hunt

Peter H. Doering

Introduction

211

(1)

Methods

212

(5)

Study Site

212

(2)

Field Monitoring

214

(1)

Model Description

214

(1)

Model Formulation

215

(1)

Loss

215

(1)

Productivity

215

(1)

Salinity Effect

216

(1)

Light Effect

216

(1)

Temperature Effect

217

(1)

Results

217

(6)

Model Calibration

217

(1)

Validation Period: Modeling Recovery

218

(3)

Representation of Environmental Variables

221

(1)

Effects of Acute Stress

222

(1)

Discussion

223

(1)

Salinity

223

(1)

Light

223

(1)

Temperature

224

(1)

Conclusions

224

(1)

Acknowledgments

225

(1)

References

225

(4)

Using Seagrass Coverage as an Indicator of Ecosystem Condition

229

(18)

Catherine A. Corbett

Peter H. Doering

Kevin A. Madley

Judith A. Ott

David A. Tomasko

Introduction

229

(4)

Charlotte Harbor, Florida

230

(3)

Methods

233

(2)

Historical Seagrass Coverage Estimates

233

(1)

Current Seagrass Mapping Efforts

233

(1)

Transects

234

(1)

Results

235

(5)

Seagrass Coverage

235

(2)

Deep Edge of Seagrass Beds

237

(3)

Discussion

240

(1)

Conclusions

241

(1)

Acknowledgments

242

(1)

References

243

(4)

Mangroves as an Indicator of Estuarine Conditions in Restoration Areas

247

(14)

Kathy Worley

Introduction

247

(1)

What Is a Mangrove?

247

(1)

Why Are Mangroves Important Indicators?

248

(1)

Die-Offs and Restoration

249

(1)

Hypothetical Chronology of a Die-Off

249

(1)

Site Description

250

(1)

Methods

251

(2)

Results

253

(3)

Die-Off Areas

253

(1)

Stressed Areas

254

(1)

Alive ``Healthy'' Areas

255

(1)

Discussion

256

(2)

Is the Clam Bay Restoration a Success?

257

(1)

Using Mangroves as an Indicator of Successful Estuarine Restoration: Pros and Cons

258

(1)

Conclusions

258

(1)

Acknowledgments

259

(1)

References

259

(2)

Molecular and Organismal Indicators of Chronic and Intermittent Hypoxia in Marine Crustacea

261

(16)

Marius Brouwer

Nancy J. Brown-Peterson

Patrick Larkin

Steve Manning

Nancy Denslow

Kenneth Rose

Introduction and Background

261

(3)

Brief Review of Molecular Biomarkers

262

(2)

Indicators of Hypoxia in Crustacea

264

(1)

Materials and Methods

264

(2)

Exposure Methods

264

(1)

Cloning and Macroarrays of Blue Crab Genes

265

(1)

Subtractive Hybridization for Identification of Hypoxia-Responsive Genes in Blue Crabs and Grass Shrimp

265

(1)

Western Blots

265

(1)

Statistical Analyses

266

(1)

Results

266

(5)

Laboratory Survival under Hypoxic Conditions

266

(1)

Changes in Gene and Protein Expression in Blue Crabs in Response to Hypoxia

266

(3)

Effects of Hypoxia on Grass Shrimp

269

(2)

Discussion

271

(2)

Scaling Molecular Biomarker Responses to Population Responses

272

(1)

Conclusions

273

(1)

Acknowledgments

273

(1)

References

274

(3)

Spionid Polychaetes as Environmental Indicators: An Example from Tampa Bay, Florida

277

(20)

Thomas L. Dix

David J. Karlen

Stephen A. Grabe

Barbara K. Goetting

Christina M. Holden

Sara E. Markham

Introduction

277

(1)

Materials and Methods

278

(2)

Results

280

(1)

Discussion

280

(11)

Carazziella hobsonae Blake, 1979

284

(1)

Prionospio perkinsi Maciolek, 1985

284

(1)

Paraprionospio pinnata (Ehlers, 1901)

284

(5)

Streblospio gynobranchiata Rice and Levin, 1998

289

(1)

Prionospio heterobranchia Moore, 1907

289

(1)

Apoprionospio pygmaea (Hartman, 1961)

289

(1)

Spio pettiboneae Foster, 1971

289

(1)

Prionospio steenstrupi Malmgren, 1867

290

(1)

Scolelepis texana Foster, 1971 and Scolelepis squamata (O. F. Muller, 1806)

290

(1)

Dipolydora socialis (Schmarda, 1861)

290

(1)

Polydora cornuta Bosc, 1802 and Polydora websteri Hartman, 1943

291

(1)

Conclusions

291

(1)

Acknowledgments

292

(1)

References

292

(5)

Trematode Parasites as Estuarine Indicators: Opportunities, Applications, and Comparisons with Conventional Community Approaches

297

(18)

Todd C. Huspeni

Ryan F. Hechinger

Kevin D. Lafferty

Introduction

297

(3)

Biomarkers, Bioindicators, and Management

297

(1)

Larval Trematodes as Bioindicators

298

(1)

Hypotheses, Predictions, and Supporting Evidence

299

(1)

Methods: Employing Trematodes in Assessments: Worldwide Opportunities, Application Methodology, and Comparisons with Other Techniques

300

(1)

Results

301

(8)

Larval Trematodes: Worldwide Opportunities for Application

301

(5)

Steps Required for Conducting a Larval Trematode Assessment

306

(3)

Comparison of Larval Trematodes with Other Community Assessment Approaches

309

(1)

Discussion

309

(2)

Acknowledgments

311

(1)

References

311

(4)

Macrobenthic Process-Indicators of Estuarine Condition

315

(18)

Chet F. Rakocinski

Glenn A. Zapfe

Introduction

316

(3)

Background and Need

316

(1)

Definition of Macrobenthic Process Indicators

316

(2)

Hypothesis

318

(1)

Objectives

318

(1)

Methods

319

(1)

Standard Operating Procedures

319

(1)

Field Methods

319

(1)

Site-Event Characterization

319

(1)

Water Column Profile

319

(1)

Macrofaunal Samples

319

(1)

Sediment Samples

319

(1)

Laboratory Methods

320

(1)

Processing Macrofaunal Samples

320

(1)

Processing Sediment Samples

321

(1)

Results

321

(4)

Process-Indicator Development

321

(1)

Volume Conversions

321

(1)

Mass Conversions

321

(1)

Daily Production Estimates

321

(1)

Aggregation to Macrobenthic Production

322

(1)

Estimating the P:B Ratio

322

(1)

Standardized Biomass-Size Spectra

322

(1)

Case Study --- Grand Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve

322

(1)

Study Design

322

(1)

Spatial Patterns in Process Indicators

323

(1)

Linking Macrobenthic Process Indicators

324

(1)

Relating Macrobenthic Process Indicators and Ecosystem Function

324

(1)

Discussion

325

(3)

Conclusions and Recommendations

328

(1)

Acknowledgments

328

(1)

References

329

(4)

Using Macroinvertebrates to Document the Effects of a Storm Water--Induced Nutrient Gradient on a Subtropical Estuary

333

(18)

Gregory Graves

Mark Thompson

Gitta Schmitt

Dana Fike

Carrie Kelly

Jillian Tyrrell

Introduction

333

(3)

Methods

336

(2)

General

336

(1)

Benthic Community Differences

336

(2)

Characterization of Community Difference

338

(1)

Differences in Environmental Factors

338

(1)

Correlation of Degraded Community Structure to Environmental Factors

338

(1)

Results

338

(4)

General

338

(2)

Differences in Environmental Factors

340

(1)

Benthic Community Differences

340

(1)

Characterization of Community Difference

340

(2)

Correlation of Degraded Community Structure to Environmental Factors

342

(1)

Discussion

342

(5)

General

342

(2)

Benthic Community Differences

344

(1)

Characterization of Community Difference

345

(1)

Differences in Environmental Factors

345

(1)

Correlation of Degraded Community Structure to Environmental Factors

346

(1)

Conclusions

347

(1)

References

347

(4)

Nekton Species Composition as a Biological Indicator of Altered Freshwater Inflow into Estuaries

351

(14)

Michael Shirley

Patrick O'Donnell

Vicki McGee

Tim Jones

Introduction

351

(2)

Methods

353

(2)

Study Sites

353

(1)

Water Quality Monitoring

354

(1)

Nekton Collection

354

(1)

Statistical Analyses

354

(1)

Results

355

(6)

Water Quality

355

(2)

Nekton Species Composition

357

(3)

Linking Abiotic and Biotic Patterns

360

(1)

Discussion

361

(2)

Conclusions

363

(1)

Acknowledgments

363

(1)

References

363

(2)

Evaluating Nearshore Communities as Indicators of Ecosystem Health

365

(16)

Donna Marie Bilkovic

Carl H. Hershner

Marcia R. Berman

Kirk J. Havens

David M. Stanhope

Introduction

365

(2)

Methods

367

(4)

Watershed Selection

367

(1)

Guild Development

367

(1)

Metric Selection

367

(1)

Data Sources and Field Sampling

368

(2)

Metric Analyses

370

(1)

Habitat Assessment

370

(1)

Fish Community Indices and Habitat Measures

371

(1)

Results

371

(3)

Discussion

374

(3)

Acknowledgments

377

(1)

References

378

(3)

Fishes as Estuarine Indicators

381

(12)

Stephen A. Bortone

William A. Dunson

Jaime M. Greenawalt

Introduction

381

(1)

Species Choices

382

(2)

Taxonomic Group

382

(1)

Life Stage

382

(1)

Level of Organization

382

(1)

Trophic Status

383

(1)

Estuarine Dependency

383

(1)

Sensitivity

384

(1)

Prior Database

384

(1)

Importance to Stakeholders

384

(1)

Laboratory vs. Field

384

(1)

A Case Study: A Plan and an Example to Establish a Fish Species as an Estuarine Indicator

385

(5)

Method

386

(1)

Results

386

(4)

Conclusions

390

(1)

References

390

(3)

Habitat Affinities of Juvenile Goliath Grouper to Assess Estuarine Conditions

393

(16)

Anne-Marie Eklund

Introduction

393

(4)

Goliath Grouper

395

(1)

Ten Thousand Islands Estuary

395

(2)

Methods

397

(2)

Results

399

(3)

Goliath Grouper Habitat Description

401

(1)

Discussion

402

(3)

Conclusions and Research Needs

405

(1)

Acknowledgments

406

(1)

References

406

(3)

Using Waterbirds as Indicators in Estuarine Systems: Successes and Perils

409

(14)

Eric D. Stolen

David R. Breininger

Peter C. Frederick

Introduction

409

(2)

Methodological Approach

411

(1)

Results

411

(6)

Benefits of Using Waterbirds as Indicators in Estuarine Systems

411

(2)

Pitfalls of Using Waterbirds as Indicators in Estuarine Systems

413

(1)

Case Study 1: Long-Term Monitoring of Nesting Wading-Bird Populations in Everglades/Florida Bay Ecosystem

414

(1)

Case Study 2: Using Wading Birds to Monitor Estuarine Habitat Restoration

415

(2)

Conclusions

417

(1)

Acknowledgments

417

(3)

References

420

(3)

Using Spatial Analysis to Assess Bottlenose Dolphins as an Indicator of Healthy Fish Habitat

423

(14)

Leigh G. Torres

Dean Urban

Introduction

423

(2)

Background

425

(1)

Methods

425

(2)

Data Collection/Field Methods

426

(1)

Data Analysis

426

(1)

Results

427

(4)

Mantel Tests

427

(2)

CARTs

429

(2)

Discussion

431

(2)

Acknowledgments

433

(1)

References

433

(4)

A Process for Selecting Indicators for Estuarine Projects with Broad Ecological Goals

437

(14)

Louis A. Toth

Introduction

437

(1)

Kissimmee River Restoration Initiative

437

(1)

Objectives of the Restoration Evaluation Plan

438

(2)

End Points

440

(4)

Impact Assessment End Points

440

(2)

Ecological Integrity End Points

442

(1)

Sociopolitical End Points

442

(1)

Restoration End Points

443

(1)

Prioritization of Indicators

444

(2)

Expectations

446

(2)

Conclusions

448

(1)

Acknowledgments

448

(1)

References

448

(3)

Environmental Indicators as Performance Measures for Improving Estuarine Environmental Quality

451

(16)

M. Jawed Hameedi

Introduction

451

(1)

Historical Perspective

452

(1)

Pressure-State-Response Framework

453

(3)

PSIR Framework and Environmental Monitoring

456

(1)

Continuing Challenges

457

(4)

A More Comprehensive Scientific Approach

457

(1)

Bridging a Widening Scientific Divide

458

(2)

Governance Indicators

460

(1)

Time Frame for Environmental Response

460

(1)

Conclusion

461

(1)

Acknowledgments

462

(1)

References

462

(5)

Indicators of Ecosystem Integrity for Estuaries

467

(14)

Stephen J. Jordan

Lisa M. Smith

Introduction

467

(1)

Terminology and Definitions

468

(1)

Conceptual Models

469

(2)

Examples of Indicators

471

(4)

Water and Sediment Quality Indicators

471

(1)

Single-Species (Population-Level) Indicators

472

(1)

Community Indicators

472

(1)

Ecosystem Indicators

473

(2)

Discussion

475

(3)

Conclusions

478

(1)

Acknowledgments

478

(1)

References

478

(3)

Using the Human Disturbance Gradient to Develop Bioassessment Procedures in Estuaries

481

(12)

Ellen McCarron

Russel Frydenborg

Introduction

481

(1)

Methods

482

(2)

The Human Disturbance Gradient

483

(1)

Selection of Biological Metrics for the Aggregate Stream Condition Index

484

(1)

Results

484

(1)

Discussion: Developing Bioassessment Criteria for Estuaries

484

(6)

Classifying Estuaries --- Developing Reasonable Expectations and Making Valid Comparisons

485

(2)

Determining the Potential Elements of an Estuarine Human Disturbance Gradient

487

(1)

Sampling Biota across a Gradient of Human Disturbance

488

(1)

Examining Biological Attributes Associated with Estuarine Community Health

489

(1)

Selecting Community Attributes Associated with Human Disturbance

490

(1)

Communicating the Results Clearly to Stakeholders and Policy Makers

490

(1)

Conclusions

490

(1)

Acknowledgments

491

(1)

References

491

(2)

Using Conceptual Models to Select Ecological Indicators for Monitoring, Restoration, and Management of Estuarine Ecosystems

493

(10)

Tomma Barnes

Frank J. Mazzotti

Introduction

493

(1)

Conceptual Ecological Models

494

(1)

Methods

494

(1)

Case Study

495

(2)

Discussion

497

(4)

References

501

(2)

Future Directions for Estuarine Indicator Research

503

(4)

S. Marshall Adams

Stephen A. Bortone

The Current Status of Estuarine Indicators

503

(1)

Future Directions

504

(2)

Understanding of Scaling and Variability

504

(1)

Long-Term Studies

505

(1)

Understanding of Influential or Causal Environmental Factors

505

(1)

Integration of Assessment Approaches and Techniques

505

(1)

Utilization of Indicators within a Holistic Framework

506

(1)

New Approaches to Estuarine Indicators

506

(1)

References

506

(1)

Index

507

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Estuarine Indicators

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials