Experimental Techniques in Low-Temperature Physics

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ISBN: 9780198514275 | 0198514271
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 4/25/2002

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Cryogenics (low temperature physics) has become a critical component of every day life through its use in satellite communications, medical diagnosis, natural gas transport, infrared surveillance, and many more applications. In this new edition of one of the leading books in the field, the authors explain the underlying principles and effects of cooling systems, liquid nitrogen, liquid helium and the approach to absolute zero. Accompanied by instructive illustrations throughout, the text covers all aspects of cryogenics including, a historical perspective, basic physics, construction techniques, thermometry, materials data, references and data sources, and information on commercial suppliers. No other book provides such a focused and up-to-date look at the techniques and practical applications of low temperature experimentation.

The historical and scientific perspective	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Thermodynamics	p. 2
Cooling processes	p. 4
Liquefying gases	p. 6
Faraday and chlorine	p. 7
Oxygen	p. 7
Hydrogen	p. 9
Helium	p. 9
Expansion engines	p. 11
Air	p. 11
Helium	p. 11
Beyond the classical age	p. 13
Magnetic cooling	p. 14
Dilution refrigeration	p. 14
Combination refrigerators	p. 15
Modern times	p. 15
Production of temperatures to 1K	p. 16
Introduction	p. 16
Coolers using countercurrent heat exchangers	p. 17
Pressure drop	p. 17
Heat transfer	p. 18
Efficiency and length	p. 19
Construction	p. 20
Other liquefier details	p. 21
The Collins helium liquefier	p. 22
Klimenko cycle	p. 22
Coolers using turbo-expanders	p. 24
Brayton cycle	p. 24
Coolers using regenerative heat exchangers	p. 25
Philips Stirling cycle	p. 26
Gifford-McMahon	p. 27
Pulse tube cooling	p. 29
Vuilleumier cycle	p. 30
Observations on cryocoolers	p. 31
Magnetic cooling above 1 K	p. 31
Gas impurities	p. 33
Thermometry	p. 34
Introduction	p. 34
Sources	p. 35
Some mileposts in history	p. 36
The ITS-90	p. 37
Measurement of thermodynamic temperature	p. 41
Gas thermometry	p. 41
Acoustic gas thermometry	p. 44
Noise thermometry	p. 44
Secondary thermometers	p. 46
Vapour pressure thermometry	p. 46
Introduction	p. 46
Thermomolecular pressure difference	p. 48
Helium	p. 48
Hydrogen	p. 49
Neon, argon, nitrogen and oxygen	p. 49
Resistance thermometry	p. 50
Introduction	p. 50
Pure metals	p. 53
Magnetic alloys	p. 56
Semiconductors and thermistors	p. 57
Oxide sensors	p. 61
Junction diodes	p. 62
Capacitance	p. 62
Thermocouples	p. 64
Magnetic susceptibility	p. 67
Electronic susceptibility	p. 68
Nuclear susceptibility	p. 70
Nuclear orientation	p. 74
[superscript 3]He melting curve	p. 75
[superscript 3]He viscosity	p. 80
Heat transfer	p. 82
Introduction	p. 82
Conduction of heat by a gas	p. 82
Heat transfer through solids	p. 84
Heat transfer by radiation	p. 87
Other causes of heat transfer	p. 89
Joule heating	p. 89
Gas adsorption	p. 91
Helium film creep and thermal oscillations	p. 91
Mechanical vibrations	p. 92
Inadequate anchoring of leads	p. 93
Electrical leakage	p. 93
Example of heat transfer calculation	p. 94
Heat transfer through pressed contacts	p. 96
Heat switches	p. 97
General	p. 97
Mechanical switches	p. 98
Superconducting switches	p. 98
Other switches	p. 99
Storage and handling of liquefied gases	p. 100
Storage vessels	p. 100
Introduction	p. 100
Danger and safety	p. 101
Glass dewars	p. 103
Metal dewars	p. 104
'Plastic' vessels	p. 106
Liquid helium dewars for research cryostats	p. 107
Transfer tubes	p. 107
Introduction	p. 107
Liquid air, N[superscript 2], O[superscript 2]	p. 108
Helium and hydrogen	p. 110
Liquid-level detectors	p. 112
Introduction	p. 112
Depth gauges	p. 113
Level detectors	p. 115
Liquid-level controllers	p. 116
Temperature control	p. 118
Introduction	p. 118
Basics	p. 119
[superscript 3]He refrigerators	p. 121
Dilution refrigerators	p. 121
Time Constants	p. 122
Control	p. 123
Choice of time constants	p. 124
Choice of loop gain	p. 125
Stability	p. 125
Non-linearities	p. 126
Integral control	p. 127
Derivative control	p. 128
Setup of PID controllers	p. 129
Practical circuitry	p. 130
Commercial controllers	p. 133
Cryostats for 1-300 K	p. 134
Introduction	p. 134
Cryostats for specific heat measurements	p. 136
Cryostats for thermal conductivity measurements	p. 139
Cryostats for capacitance dilatometry	p. 141
Cryostats for electrical resistance measurements	p. 144
Cryostats for optical and X-ray measurements	p. 144
Magnetic susceptibility measurement	p. 147
Dip-stick cryostats for storage dewars	p. 149
Some other cryostats	p. 152
Below 0.3 K	p. 153
Introduction	p. 153
Dilution refrigerators	p. 153
Overview	p. 154
Properties of 3 He and 4 He	p. 154
Details of operation	p. 157
Design features	p. 160
Common faults	p. 164
Magnetic cooling	p. 165
Subsystem separation	p. 166
The demagnetization cooling process	p. 167
The experimental view	p. 169
The quantitative approach	p. 170
Nuclear paramagnetic materials	p. 172
Thermal behaviour	p. 173
Other aspects of magnetic cooling	p. 176
Special problems	p. 176
Heat switches	p. 177
Multistage methods	p. 178
Electronic paramagnets	p. 180
Other techniques	p. 181
Magnets	p. 182
Introduction	p. 182
Overview	p. 182
Resistive magnets	p. 182
Superconducting magnets	p. 183
Hybrid magnets	p. 184
Pulsed magnets	p. 184
Other methods	p. 185
Superconductivity	p. 185
Magnet wire	p. 186
Magnet construction	p. 188
Magnet specifications	p. 189
Persistent mode	p. 189
[lambda]-plate refrigeration	p. 191
Power supplies	p. 191
Lead design for high currents	p. 192
Magnet operation	p. 193
Quenches	p. 194
Small coils	p. 194
Magnet calculations for small coils	p. 195
Field profiles	p. 195
Calculating fields	p. 196
Other techniques	p. 197
Introduction	p. 197
High-vacuum systems	p. 197
Pumping speed	p. 201
Low-temperature leaks	p. 204
Solders	p. 205
Hard solders or silver solders	p. 205
Soft solders	p. 206
Welding	p. 207
Low-melting-point solders	p. 207
Special solders	p. 208
Vacuum seals and cements	p. 208
Metal-glass seals	p. 208
Sealing cements and compounds	p. 209
Demountable vacuum seals	p. 211
Physical properties of solids	p. 213
Introduction	p. 213
Heat capacity	p. 213
Introduction	p. 213
Lattice heat capacity	p. 214
Electronic heat capacity	p. 216
Sources and estimates of data	p. 216
Sample calculation of cooling requirements	p. 218
Liquid helium temperatures	p. 218
Thermal expansion	p. 219
Introduction	p. 219
Background	p. 220
Data sources and estimates	p. 222
A useful approximation	p. 224
Electrical resistance of metals	p. 224
Introduction	p. 224
Scattering by lattice vibrations	p. 225
Scattering by static imperfections	p. 227
Data sources and estimates	p. 227
Thermal conductivity	p. 228
Introduction	p. 228
Metals	p. 228
Non-metals	p. 230
Glasses and amorphous polymers	p. 232
Alloys	p. 232
Foams and powders	p. 233
Data sources	p. 234
Magnetic susceptibility	p. 234
Suppliers of cryogenic equipment	p. 237
Tables	p. 251
Common symbols	p. 261
References	p. 263
Index	p. 275
Table of Contents provided by Syndetics. All Rights Reserved.

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Experimental Techniques in Low-Temperature Physics

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