Flavor Perception

, by Taylor, Andrew J.; Roberts, Deborah D.

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ISBN: 9781405116275 | 1405116277
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 7/30/2004

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Unlike other human senses, the exact mechanisms that lead to our perception of flavor have not yet been elucidated. It is recognised that the process involves a wide range of stimuli, which are thought likely to interact in a complex way, but, since the chemical compounds and physical structures that activate the flavor sensors change as the food is eaten, measurements of the changes in stimuli with time are essential to an understanding of the relationship between stimuli and perception.It is clear that we need to consider the whole process - the release of flavor chemicals in the mouth, the transport processes to the receptors, the specificity and characteristics of the receptors, the transduction mechanisms and the subsequent processing of signals locally and at higher centres in the brain.This book provides a state-of-the-art review of our current understanding of the key stages of flavor perception for those working in the flavor field, whether in the academic or industrial sector. In particular, it is directed at food scientists and technologists, ingredients suppliers and sensory scientists.

Contributors

xii

Preface

1 Measuring proximal stimuli involved in flavour perception

(38)

ANDREW J. TAYLOR and JOANNE HORT

1.1 Factors influencing flavour perception

(3)

1.1.1 Perception of 'taste' and its location

(1)

1.1.2 Multimodal nature of flavour perception

(2)

1.1.3 Distal and proximal stimuli

(1)

1.2 Aroma

(10)

1.2.1 Measurement of orthonasal proximal stimuli

(1)

1.2.2 Measurement of retronasal proximal stimuli

(4)

1.2.3 Examples of differences in distal and proximal aroma stimuli

(1)

1.2.4 Relating proximal aroma stimuli to flavour perception

(3)

1.3 Taste

(4)

1.4 Texture

(4)

1.5 Colour and appearance

(7)

1.5.1 Colour perception

(1)

1.5.2 Specifying colour

(3)

1.5.3 Instrumental measurement of colour

(2)

1.6 Methods to study and quantify crossmodal interactions

(5)

1.7 Conclusion

(5)

2 The role of oral processing in flavour perception

(18)

JON F. PRINZ and RENE DE WIJK

2.1 Introduction

(2)

2.2 Anatomy of the peri-oral structures

(5)

2.2.1 Saliva

(2)

2.3 Flavour

(1)

2.4 Oral processing

(6)

2.5 Conclusion

(4)

3 The cellular basis of flavour perception: taste and aroma

(29)

NANCY E. RAWSON and XIA LI

3.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2 Taste and flavour

(10)

3.2.1 Taste buds and taste cells

(2)

3.2.2 Molecular mechanisms

(1)

3.2.3 Salt taste

(2)

3.2.4 Sour taste

(1)

3.2.5 Sweet taste

(1)

3.2.6 Bitter taste

(1)

3.2.7 Umami taste

(2)

3.2.8 Individual variations - polymorphisms in receptors

(1)

3.3 Perception of aroma

(7)

3.3.1 What is the 'signal'?

(2)

3.3.2 How is odorant information encoded?

(1)

3.3.3 Odour intensity and quality coding in the olfactory bulb

(4)

3.4 Flavour perception can be modulated: adaptation, sensitisation and crosstalk

(2)

3.5 Flavour perception and ageing

(3)

3.5.1 Anatomy and physiology

(1)

3.5.2 Taste

(1)

3.5.3 Olfaction

(1)

3.6 Conclusion

(7)

4 Structural recognition between odorants, olfactory-binding proteins and olfactory receptors - first events in odour coding

(65)

JEAN-CLAUDE PERNOLLET and LOIC BRIAND

4.1 Introduction

(3)

4.2 Anatomy of the olfactory system

(1)

4.3 Olfactory-binding proteins

(14)

4.3.1 OBP discovery

(1)

4.3.2 General properties of vertebrate OBPs

(5)

4.3.2.1 Structural properties of OBPs

(4)

4.3.2.2 Comparison with insect OBPs

(1)

4.3.3 Experimental approaches to OBP-odorant interactions

(1)

4.3.4 Human OBPs

(1)

4.3.5 Structure of the odorant-binding pocket

(2)

4.3.5.1 Crystallographic observations of complexes of OBPs with odorants

(1)

4.3.5.2 Biochemical molecular modelling and docking investigation of hOBP

(1)

4.3.6 Potential role of OBPs in odour discrimination

100

(2)

4.3.7 Conclusions about OBP

102

(2)

4.3.7.1 Vertebrate OBP definition

102

(1)

4.3.7.2 Comparison of OBP numbers in vertebrates and in insects and OBP role in odorant discrimination

102

(1)

4.3.7.3 Biological role of OBPs

102

(1)

4.3.7.4 Putative roles of OBPs

103

(1)

4.3.7.5 Lipocalins potentially involved in taste

104

(1)

4.4 Olfactory receptors

104

(23)

4.4.1 Discovery of ORs as G protein-coupled receptors

104

(6)

4.4.1.1 General properties of GPCRs

105

(1)

4.4.1.2 GPCR classification

106

(2)

4.4.1.3 G proteins as transducers

108

(2)

4.4.2 Peculiar properties of ORs

110

(2)

4.4.2.1 The second external loop of ORs

110

(2)

4.4.3 Odorant recognition by ORs: structural relationships between OR and odorant

112

(6)

4.4.3.1 Experimental studies of odorant-OR interactions

112

(2)

4.4.3.2 OR functional studies reveal broad odorant selectivity

114

(4)

4.4.4 Odorant-binding site in the receptor transmembrane bundle

118

(2)

4.4.5 Conclusions on the odorant-OR structural relationships and odotope definition

120

(1)

4.4.6 OR classification and genome comparison

121

(4)

4.4.6.1 Classification of the OR gene family

121

(1)

4.4.6.2 OR nomenclature

122

(1)

4.4.6.3 Variability of ORs within the human species

123

(1)

4.4.6.4 Comparison of the OR number between man and animal and between vertebrates and insects

123

(1)

4.4.6.5 Human OR genome compared to macrosmatic animals

124

(1)

4.4.7 Other possible functions for ORs

125

(1)

4.4.8 Concluding remarks about ORs

126

(1)

4.5 Biochemical mechanisms involved in odorant capture

127

(5)

4.5.1 Interactions of OBP with OR

127

(2)

4.5.2 Signal transduction in olfactory neurons and neural impulse formation

129

(2)

4.5.2.1 Receptor activation and downstream signalling

130

(1)

4.5.2.2 OR desensitisation

130

(1)

4.5.3 Beyond the olfactory neuron

131

(1)

4.6 Conclusion

132

(19)

4.6.1 Complexity of stereochemical odorant recognition and subsequent odour coding

132

(2)

4.6.2 Taste and VNO receptors compared to ORs

134

(1)

4.6.3 Comparison of human and animal olfactory systems

135

(1)

4.6.4 Inferences from the recent knowledge about olfaction pericellular events and future progresses

136

(2)

4.6.4.1 Odotope mixture cannot be distinguished from odorant mixture

136

(1)

4.6.4.2 Human individual variability

137

(1)

4.6.5 Olfactory biosensors

138

(13)

5 Oral chemesthesis: an integral component of flavour

151

(21)

BARRY G. GREEN

5.1 Overview

151

(1)

5.2 Introduction

151

(1)

5.3 The neurophysiological basis of oral chemesthesis

152

(3)

5.4 Psychophysical characteristics

155

(3)

5.4.1 Sensation quality

155

(1)

5.4.2 Spatial factors in sensitivity and sensation quality

156

(2)

5.5 The roles of sensitisation and desensitisation in chemesthetic perception

158

(3)

5.6 Temperature and chemesthesis

161

(1)

5.7 Interactions with touch

162

(1)

5.8 Interactions with taste and smell

162

(3)

5.9 Individual differences

165

(7)

6 Flavour perception and the learning of food preferences

172

(31)

ANTHONY A. BLAKE

6.1 Introduction

172

(1)

6.2 Flavour as an example of molecular communication

173

(4)

6.2.1 The human brain

174

(2)

6.2.2 Multisensory perception

176

(1)

6.3 What flavour is and how we learn to like it

177

(20)

6.3.1 Learning to like flavour

183

(8)

6.3.2 Flavour learning in adults

191

(6)

6.4 Conclusion

197

(6)

7 Functional magnetic resonance imaging of human olfaction

203

(25)

MARTIN WIESMANN, BIRGIT KETTENMANN and GERD KOBAL

7.1 Introduction

203

(1)

7.2 The methodological basis of functional magnetic resonance imaging

203

(5)

7.2.1 Magnetic resonance imaging

203

(1)

7.2.2 Functional magnetic resonance imaging

204

(4)

7.2.2.1 Exogenous contract agent injection

205

(1)

7.2.2.2 Arterial spin labelling

205

(1)

7.2.2.3 Blood oxygen level-dependent fMRI

205

(3)

7.3 fMRI and perception of odorous compounds

208

(13)

7.3.1 Anatomy and organisation of the olfactory system

209

(4)

7.3.1.1 Olfactory receptors, olfactory nerves and olfactory bulb

210

(1)

7.3.1.2 Olfactory tract and primary olfactory cortex

211

(2)

7.3.2 fMRI studies of the primary olfactory cortex

213

(8)

7.3.2.1 Secondary olfactory regions

215

(1)

7.3.2.2 Orbitofrontal cortex

216

(2)

7.3.2.3 The role of the amygdala in hedonic processing of odours

218

(2)

7.3.2.4 Other brain regions

220

(1)

7.3.2.5 Cingulate

220

(1)

7.3.2.6 Cerebellum

220

(1)

7.3.2.7 Imagination of odours and memory

221

(1)

7.4 Interaction between olfaction and other sensory modalities

221

(1)

7.4.1 Transduction of pheromone-like compounds in humans

222

(1)

7.5 Conclusion

222

(6)

8 Flavor interactions at the sensory level

228

(28)

RUSSELL S.J. KEAST, PAMELA H. DALTON and PAUL A.S. BRESLIN

8.1 Introduction

228

(1)

8.2 The psychophysical curve: physical intensity vs. perceived intensity

228

(6)

8.3 Attributes of sensory modalities

234

(3)

8.3.1 Quality

234

(1)

8.3.2 Intensity

234

(1)

8.3.3 Temporal pattern

235

(1)

8.3.4 Spatial pattern

236

(1)

8.4 Adaptation

237

(1)

8.5 Four levels of flavor interactions

237

(2)

8.5.1 Physiochemical interactions

237

(1)

8.5.2 Mechanical/structural interactions

238

(1)

8.5.3 Oral and nasal peripheral interactions

238

(1)

8.5.4 Central cognitive interactions

239

(1)

8.6 Intramodal interactions

239

(5)

8.6.1 Taste

239

(2)

8.6.1.1 Single-quality interactions

240

(1)

8.6.1.2 Multiple-quality interactions

241

(1)

8.6.2 Odor

241

(1)

8.6.2.1 Odor interactions

242

(1)

8.6.3 Somatosensations are components of flavor

242

(2)

8.6.3.1 Chemesthesis: irritation

243

(1)

8.7 Texture

244

(2)

8.7.1 Visual texture

245

(1)

8.7.2 Auditory texture

245

(1)

8.7.3 Tactile texture

245

(1)

8.8 Interactions between modalities

246

(2)

8.8.1 Interactions of orosensory chemesthesis, tactile sensations and taste

246

(1)

8.8.2 Interactions of odor and somatosensations

247

(1)

8.8.3 Interactions of odor and taste

247

(1)

8.9 Sources of error in sensory research

248

(1)

8.9.1 Individual variation

248

(1)

8.9.2 Experimental protocol

248

(1)

8.9.3 Choice of flavor-active compound

249

(1)

8.9.4 Psychophysical function of a compound

249

(1)

8.9.5 Method of rating

249

(1)

8.10 Practical implications for flavor

249

(7)

9 Psychological processes in flavour perception

256

(23)

JOHN PRESCOTT

9.1 Flavour as sensory integration

256

(1)

9.2 Qualitative and psychophysical evidence for odour-taste integration

257

(6)

9.2.1 Taste properties of odours

258

(1)

9.2.2 How do taste-related odour qualities develop?

258

(1)

9.2.3 How 'real' are smelled taste qualities?

259

(2)

9.2.4 Influence of smelled taste qualities on the perception of tastes

261

(2)

9.3 Smelled taste qualities and taste modification as indicators of flavour formation

263

(4)

9.3.1 The role of spatial and temporal factors in odour-taste integration

266

(1)

9.4 Cognitive processes in the development of flavour perception

267

(6)

9.4.1 Taste modification by odours: a rating effect?

267

(1)

9.4.2 Taste modification by odours as a function of perceptual strategy

268

(1)

9.4.3 Analysis and synthesis in the perception of flavour

269

(1)

9.4.4 Investigating cognitive processes in flavour perception

270

(3)

9.5 Implications and future directions

273

(1)

9.6 Conclusion

274

(5)

Index

279

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Flavor Perception

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials