Forest Ecology, 4th Edition

, by Barnes, Burton V.; Zak, Donald R.; Denton, Shirley R.; Spurr, Stephen H.

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ISBN: 9780471308225 | 0471308226
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 3/16/1998

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This revised and reorganized text is designed for a standard forest ecology course for undergraduates in forestry, natural resources, environmental science, environmental ecology, and field ecology programs. Provides an eminently current perspective on the material by emphasizing forest ecosystems using a landscape-ecosystem or geo-ecosystem approach. Written by both field teachers and researchers of forest ecology and practitioners of forest ecology in both public and private arenas. Treats traditional plant ecology topics of community, succession, biota from a landscape ecosystem perspective, also emphasizes earth science.

CHAPTER 1 CONCEPTS OF FOREST ECOLOGY

(18)

Ecology

(1)

Landscape Ecosystems

(7)

Landscape Ecosystem and Community

(1)

Ecosystem Structure

(1)

Ecosystem Function

(1)

Vertical and Horizontal Approaches

(2)

Examples of Landscape Ecosystems

(4)

An Approach to the Study of Forest Ecology

(2)

Applicability in Ecosystem Management

(1)

Suggested Readings

(2)

PART 1 Ecosystems at Multiple Spatial and Temporal Scales

(42)

CHAPTER 2 LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEMS AT MULTIPLE SPATIAL SCALES

(20)

Overview of Spatial and Temporal Scales

(3)

Hierarchical Ecosystem Scales in Space

(7)

Climatic Classification

(3)

Vegetation Types and Biomes

(3)

Physiography

(1)

Distinguishing and Mapping Landscape Ecosystems at Multiple Spatial Scales

(9)

Regional Landscape Ecosystems

(4)

Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Michigan

(3)

Local Landscape Ecosystems

(2)

Local Landscape Ecosystems in Upper Michigan

(2)

Suggested Readings

(1)

CHAPTER 3 LONG-TERM ECOSYSTEM AND VEGETATION CHANGE

(20)

Change Before the Pleistocene Age

(1)

Pleistocene Glaciations

(1)

Ecosystem and Vegetational Change Since the Last Glacial Maximum

(9)

Pollen Analysis

(1)

Eastern North America

(5)

Overall Migration Sequence and Patterns

(3)

Ecosystem Change in the Southern Appalachians

(1)

Western North America

(2)

Patterns of Tree Genera and Species Migrations

(4)

Migration Irregularities and Disturbance

(1)

Long-Term Change at a Given Site

(1)

Independent Migration and Similarity of Communities Through Time

(1)

Adaptations of Conifers and Angiosperms

(2)

Suggested Readings

(1)

PART 2 The Forest Tree

(88)

CHAPTER 4 FOREST TREE VARIATION

(31)

Components of Phenotypic Variation

(2)

Plasticity of the Phenotype

(1)

Sources of Variation

(1)

The Evolutionary Sequence

(1)

Sexual and Asexual Systems

(1)

Genetic Diversity of Woody Species

(1)

Genecology

(16)

Patterns of Genecological Differentiation

(1)

Genecological Categories

(1)

Factors Eliciting Genecological Differentiation

(5)

Growth Cessation

(3)

Growth Resumption

(1)

Examples of Genecological Differentiation

(7)

Eastern North American Species

(2)

Scots Pine

(1)

Wide-Ranging Western North American Conifers

(4)

Ponderosa Pine

(2)

Douglas-fir

(1)

Local Genecological Differentiation

(1)

Factors Affecting Differentiation: Gene Flow and Selection Pressure

(2)

Ecological Considerations at the Species Level

(7)

Niche

(1)

Hybridization

(3)

Polyploidy

(1)

The Fitness-Flexibility Compromise

(1)

Suggested Readings

(2)

CHAPTER 5 REGENERATION ECOLOGY

(28)

Regeneration

(3)

Sexual Reproduction

(10)

Maturation and Ability to Flower

(1)

Increasing Seed Production

(1)

Reproductive Cycles

(1)

Pollination

100

(2)

Periodicity of Seed Crops

102

(2)

Effects of Reproduction on Vegetative Growth

104

(1)

Dispersal

105

(2)

Seed Bank, Dormancy, and Germination

107

(1)

Establishment Following Sexual Reproduction

108

(7)

Post-Establishment Development

115

(1)

Vegetative Reproduction

115

(6)

Suggested Readings

121

(1)

CHAPTER 6 STRUCTURE AND GROWTH

122

(27)

Tree Form

122

(9)

Architectural Models

124

(7)

Short and Long Shoots

126

(1)

Patterns of Intermittent Growth

127

(3)

Sylleptic and Proleptic Shoots

130

(1)

Roots

131

(7)

Kinds, Forms, and Occurrence

132

(1)

Fine Root Relations

132

(3)

Horizontal and Vertical Root Development

135

(1)

Periodicity of Primary Root Growth

136

(1)

Root Grafting

137

(1)

Specialized Roots and Buttresses

137

(1)

Stems

138

(7)

Xylem Cells and Growth Rings

140

(1)

Periodicity and Control of Secondary Growth

141

(3)

Control of Earlywood and Latewood Formation

143

(1)

Winter Freezing and Water Transport

144

(1)

Water Deficits and Tree Growth

145

(3)

Suggested Readings

148

(1)

PART 3 The Physical Environment

149

(182)

CHAPTER 7 CLIMATE

153

(29)

Climatic Control of Vegetation Distribution

154

(11)

Radiation

154

(2)

Air Circulation

156

(2)

Air Masses

158

(1)

Water

159

(4)

Continents and Physiography

163

(2)

Describing Climate

165

(6)

Temperature

165

(2)

Precipitation

167

(3)

Fog and Dew

168

(2)

Snow

170

(1)

Evapotranspiration

170

(1)

Wind

171

(1)

Extreme Events

171

(4)

Storms

172

(1)

Drought

173

(1)

Glaze

174

(1)

Extreme Cold

174

(1)

Microclimate

175

(1)

Classifying Climate

175

(3)

Climatic Change

178

(3)

Suggested Readings

181

(1)

CHAPTER 8 LIGHT

182

(24)

Distribution of Light Reaching the Ecosphere

183

(1)

Interception of Radiation

184

(7)

Canopy Structure and Leaf Area

186

(3)

Sun Flecks

189

(2)

Light Quality Beneath the Forest Canopy

191

(1)

Light and Growth of Trees

191

(7)

Light and Tree Morphology and Anatomy

198

(5)

Leaf Structure and Stratification in Tropical Forests

199

(4)

Adventitious Buds and Epicormic Sprouting

203

(1)

Photocontrol of Plant Response

203

(1)

Light and Ecosystem Change

204

(1)

Suggested Readings

205

(1)

CHAPTER 9 TEMPERATURE

206

(18)

Temperatures at the Soil Surface

206

(2)

Temperatures Within the Forest

208

(1)

Temperature Variations with Topographic Position

208

(1)

Temperature and Plant Growth

209

(12)

Cold Injury to Plants

213

(1)

Dormancy

214

(1)

Frost Hardiness and Cold Resistance

215

(5)

Thermotrophic Movements in Rhododendrons

218

(2)

Winter Chilling and Growth Resumption

220

(1)

Natural Plant Distributions and Cold Hardiness

221

(2)

Deciduousness and Temperature

222

(1)

Suggested Readings

223

(1)

CHAPTER 10 PHYSIOGRAPHY

224

(31)

Concepts and Terms

225

(2)

Characteristics of Physiography and their Significance

227

(6)

Physiographic Setting

227

(1)

Specific Landforms

228

(1)

Elevation

228

(1)

Form of Landforms

228

(5)

Level Terrain

228

(1)

Sloping Terrain

229

(1)

Slope Characteristics

229

(3)

Position on Slope

229

(1)

Aspect

230

(1)

Slope Inclination

230

(2)

Parent Material in Relation to Landform

232

(1)

Position of Landform in the Landscape

232

(1)

Multiple Roles of Physiography

233

(1)

Physiographic Diversity, Landscape Ecosystems, and Vegetation

234

(14)

Mountainous Physiography

234

(9)

Mountainous Terrain of California and the Pacific Northwest

234

(4)

Physiography and Forests of the Central Appalachians

238

(5)

Flatlands

243

(5)

The Great Plains

243

(1)

Southwestern Plateaus and Pine Forests

243

(1)

Pine Savannas of the Western Great Lakes Region

244

(1)

Till Plains of the Midwest

244

(1)

Southeastern and Southern Coastal Plain

245

(1)

Floodplains

245

(3)

Physiography and Firebreaks

248

(2)

Microlandforms and Microtopography

250

(3)

Tree Uprooting and Pit and Mound Microtopography

250

(3)

Microtopography and Regeneration in Hardwood Swamps

253

(1)

Suggested Readings

253

(2)

CHAPTER 11 SOIL

255

(24)

Parent Material

255

(3)

Soil Formation

258

(2)

Soil Profile Development

258

(2)

Physical Properties of Soil

260

(5)

Soil Texture

260

(1)

Soil Structure

261

(1)

Soil Color

262

(1)

Soil Water

263

(2)

Physical Properties of Water

263

(1)

Soil Water Potential

264

(1)

Chemical Properties of Soil

265

(10)

Clay Mineralogy

268

(2)

Cation Exchange and Supply of Nutrients

270

(4)

Soil Acidity

272

(2)

Soil Organic Matter

274

(1)

Soil Classification

275

(1)

Landform, Soil, and Forest Vegetation: Landscape Relationships

276

(2)

Suggested Readings

278

(1)

CHAPTER 12 FIRE

279

(19)

Fire and the Forest Tree

280

(10)

Causes

280

(1)

Fire Regime

280

(4)

Fire Types, Frequency, and Severity

281

(3)

Fire Adaptations and Key Characters

284

(4)

Strategies of Species Persistence

288

(2)

Closed-Cone Pines

289

(1)

Fire and the Forest Site

290

(7)

Indirect Effects

290

(2)

Direct Effect

292

(2)

Detrimental and Beneficial Effects

294

(3)

Suggested Readings

297

(1)

CHAPTER 13 SITE QUALITY AND ECOSYSTEM EVALUATION

298

(33)

Direct Measurement of Forest Productivity

300

(1)

Tree Height as a Measure of Site

300

(6)

Site-Index Curves

302

(4)

Comparisons between Species

306

(1)

Advantages and Limitations

306

(1)

Vegetation as an Indicator of Site Quality

306

(8)

Species Groups of Groundflora

308

(2)

Indicator Plants of Coastal British Columbia

309

(1)

Ecological Species Groups

309

(1)

Plant Associations and Habitat Types in the Western United States

310

(4)

Operational Site Classification Based on Vegetation

310

(4)

Applications and Limitations of Vegetation

314

(1)

Environmental Factors as a Measure of Site

314

(6)

Climatic Factors

315

(1)

Physiographic Land Classification

315

(1)

Physiographic and Soil Factors: Soil-Site Studies

316

(4)

Soil Survey

320

(1)

Multiple-factor Methods of Site and Ecosystem Classification

320

(9)

Ecosystem Classification and Mapping in Baden-Wurttemberg

321

(2)

Applications of Multifactor Methods in the United States and Canada

323

(6)

Ecosystem Classification and Mapping in Michigan

323

(3)

Ecosystem Classification in the Southeastern United States

326

(1)

Ecological Land Classification in Canada

327

(2)

Hills' Physiographic Approach

327

(1)

Other Canadian Approaches

327

(2)

Suggested Readings

329

(2)

PART 4 Forest Communities

331

(76)

CHAPTER 14 ANIMALS

333

(28)

Plant Defense

334

(7)

The Plant Dilemma: To Grow or Defend

334

(2)

Insects

336

(4)

Examples of Injury and Plant Defense

336

(2)

Between-Plant and Within-Plant Heterogeneity

338

(1)

Nutrition

338

(1)

Plant Hybrid Zones as Reservoirs for Insects

339

(1)

Mammals

340

(1)

Role of Animals in Plant Life History

341

(11)

Pollination

342

(1)

Seed Dispersal

342

(6)

Fish and Reptiles

343

(1)

Birds

343

(3)

Mammals

346

(2)

Germination and Establishment

348

(1)

Decomposition, Mineral Cycling, and Soil Improvement

349

(1)

Damage and Death

350

(2)

Production and Regeneration

352

(1)

Wildlife Habitat and Fire

352

(3)

Adaptations to Fire-Dependent Ecosystems

353

(1)

Kinds and Abundance of Animals

353

(1)

Factors Affecting Animal Responses to Fire

354

(1)

Influence of Large Animals on Forest Ecosystems

355

(5)

Livestock Grazing

356

(1)

Human Component of Ecosystems

357

(3)

Human-Introduced Exotics

358

(2)

Suggested Readings

360

(1)

CHAPTER 15 FOREST COMMUNITIES

361

(46)

Community Concept

361

(7)

Grounding Communities

363

(5)

Florida Keys

363

(2)

Interior Alaska

365

(1)

Southern Illinois

366

(2)

View from the Past: Community Concepts

368

(5)

Schools and Terminology

368

(4)

Concepts of Clements and Gleason

369

(2)

Phytosociology in Europe

371

(1)

Continuum Concept

372

(1)

Community as a Landscape Property

373

(2)

Examples of Spatial Variation in Forest Communities

375

(5)

Discrete Forest Communities

375

(3)

Coastal California: Giant and Pigmy Forests

375

(2)

Forest-Grassland Ecotone

377

(1)

Alpine Tree-Lines

377

(1)

Merging Forest Communities

378

(2)

Eastern Deciduous Forest-Southern Appalachians

378

(1)

New England

379

(1)

Competition and Niche Differentiation

380

(3)

Interactions Among Organisms

383

(12)

Mutualisms in Forest Ecosystems

383

(3)

Symbiotic Mutualisms-Mycorrhizae

384

(2)

Nonsymbiotic Mutualisms

386

(1)

Competition

386

(9)

Composition, Stand Structure, and Density

387

(6)

Vertical Structure

389

(2)

Stand Density

391

(2)

Competition and Overstory Composition

393

(1)

Competition in the Understory

394

(1)

Understory Tolerance

395

(11)

Characteristics of Understory Tolerant and Intolerant Species

396

(1)

Tolerance Ratings of Tree Species

397

(1)

Examples of Understory Tolerance in Forest Ecosystems

398

(1)

Nature of Understory Tolerance

398

(8)

Environmental Factors Relating to Understory Tolerance

398

(5)

Physiological Processes Relating to Tolerance

403

(3)

Suggested Readings

406

(1)

PART 5 Forest Ecosystem Dynamics

407

(246)

CHAPTER 16 DISTURBANCE

409

(34)

Disturbance as an Ecosystem Process

410

(4)

Source of Disturbance

413

(1)

Major Disturbances in Forest Ecosystems

414

(22)

Catastrophic and Local Land Movement

414

(1)

Fire

414

(14)

Role of Fire in Forest Ecosystems

415

(8)

Pines in New England and the Lake States

417

(1)

Western Pines and Trembling Aspen

417

(4)

Southern Pines

421

(1)

Douglas-fir in the Pacific Northwest

421

(1)

Giant Sequoia

422

(1)

Fire History and Behavior

423

(4)

Northern Lake States

423

(3)

Boreal Forest and Taiga

426

(1)

Northern Rocky Mountains

426

(1)

Fire Exclusion

427

(1)

Wind

428

(4)

Catastrophic and Local Effects

428

(1)

Principles of Wind Damage

429

(1)

Broad-Scale Disturbance by Hurricanes

430

(1)

Southern Atlantic Coast

431

(1)

New England--1938 Hurricane

431

(1)

Wave-Regenerated Fir Species

431

(1)

Floodwater and Ice Storm

432

(1)

Insects and Disease

433

(1)

Logging

433

(3)

Land Clearing

436

(1)

Biotic Composition Changes

436

(5)

Elimination of Species

437

(2)

Addition of Species

439

(1)

Introductions to New Zealand

439

(1)

Increased Animal Impact

440

(1)

Climatic Change

441

(1)

Suggested Readings

442

(1)

CHAPTER 17 FOREST SUCCESSION

443

(43)

Basic Concepts

444

(3)

Primary and Secondary Succession

444

(1)

Biological Legacies

445

(1)

Successful Pathways, Mechanisms, and Models

445

(1)

Autogenic and Allogenic Succession

445

(1)

How Is Succession Determined?

446

(1)

Evolution of the Concept of Forest Succession

447

(1)

Formal Ecological Theory

448

(1)

How Does Succession work?

448

(13)

Clementsian Succession

450

(1)

Stages of Succession

451

(6)

Primary Succession

451

(3)

Secondary Succession

454

(3)

Successional Causes, Mechanisms, and Models

457

(4)

Key Characteristics and Regeneration Strategies

457

(1)

Availability and Arrival Sequence of Species

458

(1)

Facilitation, Tolerance, and Inhibition

458

(2)

Diagrammatic Comparison of Models

460

(1)

Change in Ecosystems

461

(2)

End Point of Succession?

462

(1)

Succession as a Landscape Ecosystem Process

463

(3)

Biomass and Diversity

466

(2)

Examples of Forest Succession

468

(16)

Recently Deglaciated Terrain--A Geoecology Approach

468

(3)

Succession Following Fire in Ponderosa Pine Forests of Western Montana

471

(2)

Gap Dynamics

473

(6)

Gap Specialists: American Beech and Sugar Maple

477

(2)

Old-Field Succession in the Eastern United States

479

(4)

Fire and Oak Dominance--Oaks at Risk

483

(1)

Suggested Readings

484

(2)

CHAPTER 18 CARBON BALANCE OF TREES AND ECOSYSTEMS

486

(38)

Carbon Balance of Trees

487

(2)

Photosynthesis, Dark Respiration, and Leaf C Gain

487

(2)

Light and Leaf C Gain

489

(2)

Temperature and Leaf C Gain

491

(1)

Water and Leaf C Gain

492

(1)

Soil Nitrogen Availability and Leaf C Gain

493

(1)

Construction and Maintenance Respiration

494

(2)

Allocation to Structure, Storage, and Defense

496

(3)

Light and C Allocation

499

(1)

Soil Nitrogen Availability and C Allocation

499

(5)

Carbon Balance of Ecosystems

503

(1)

Biomass and Productivity of Forest Ecosystems

504

(3)

Measurement of Biomass and Productivity

507

(3)

Climate and Productivity

510

(4)

Soil Properties, Forest Biomass, and ANPP

514

(1)

Biomass Accumulation During Ecosystem Development

515

(5)

Soil N Availability and Belowground Net Primary Productivity

520

(3)

Suggested Readings

523

(1)

CHAPTER 19 NUTRIENT CYCLING

524

(53)

Nutrient Additions to Forest Ecosystems

526

(8)

Mineral Weathering

526

(2)

Atmospheric Deposition

528

(2)

Biological Fixation of Nitrogen

530

(4)

Nutrient Cycling within Forest Ecosystems

534

(27)

Nutrient Transport to Roots

535

(1)

Nutrient Uptake and Assimilation by Roots

536

(3)

Root Architecture, Mycorrhizae, and Nutrient Acquisition

539

(2)

Root Architecture

539

(1)

Mycorrhizae

540

(1)

Plant Litter and the Return of Nutrients to Forest Floor and Soil

541

(6)

Leaf and Root Litter Production

541

(2)

Nutrient Retranslocation

543

(4)

Nutrients in the Forest Floor

547

(3)

Organic Matter Decomposition and Nutrient Mineralization

550

(11)

Chemical Constituents of Plant Litter

550

(3)

Dynamics of Decomposition

553

(4)

Nitrogen Immobilization and Mineralization

557

(3)

Nitrogen Availability in Forest Ecosystems

560

(1)

Nitrification

560

(1)

Nutrient Loss from Forest Ecosystems

561

(5)

Nutrient Leaching from Forest Ecosystems

562

(2)

Dentrification

564

(2)

The Cycling and Storage of Nutrients in Forest Ecosystems

566

(3)

Nutrient Storage in Boreal, Temperate, and Tropical Forests

566

(1)

The Nitrogen and Calcium Cycle of a Temperate Forest Ecosystem

567

(2)

Ecosystem C Balance and the Retention and Loss of Nutrients

569

(3)

Forest Harvesting and Nutrient Loss

572

(3)

Suggested Readings

575

(2)

CHAPTER 20 DIVERSITY

577

(36)

Concepts of Biological and Ecosystem Diversity

578

(1)

Species Diversity and Its Value

578

(4)

Value of Biodiversity

580

(2)

Measuring Diversity

582

(14)

Levels of Diversity

582

(2)

Measurement

584

(4)

Inventory Diversity: Alpha Diversity

584

(4)

Differentiation or Beta Diversity

588

(1)

Diversity of Landscape Ecosystems

588

(1)

Examples of Diversity

589

(6)

Ground-Cover Species Diversity in Northern Lower Michigan

589

(6)

Ecosystem Groups

589

(4)

Ecosystem Types

593

(2)

Ecosystem Diversity

595

(1)

Causes of Species Diversity at Multiple Scales

596

(12)

Diversity at Continental and Subcontinental Scales

597

(7)

Paleogeography and Continental Relationships

597

(3)

Glaciation

600

(1)

Latitude and Elevation

600

(4)

Diversity at Local Scales

604

(4)

Physiography and Soil

604

(2)

Community Composition and Structure

606

(1)

Disturbance and Succession

606

(2)

Human Effects and Concerns for Diversity

608

(3)

Endemics and Rare and Endangered Species

608

(1)

Keystone Species

608

(2)

Effects of Forest Management on Diversity

610

(1)

Conserving Ecosystem and Biological Diversity

611

(1)

Landscape Ecosystem Approach

611

(1)

Suggested Readings

612

(1)

CHAPTER 21 LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY

613

(40)

Concepts of Landscape Ecology

614

(1)

Old-Growth Forests of the Pacific Northwest

615

(8)

Coarse Woody Debris and Ecosystem Interactions in Riparian Zones

615

(5)

Erosion and Geomorphology in Riparian Systems

620

(1)

Forest-Stream Linkages at Multiple Spatial Scales

621

(2)

Landscape-Level Disturbance

623

(5)

Catastrophic Windstorm in New England

623

(3)

Vegetational Diversity Mediated by Fire in Yellowstone National Park

626

(2)

Landscape Pattern and Process Using a Landscape Ecosystem Approach

628

(6)

Geomorphic Processes and Ecosystem Patterns

629

(1)

Landscape Ecosystems and Endangered Spaces

630

(4)

Forest Fragmentation

634

(5)

Ecological Effects

636

(3)

New Paradigm in Forestry: Sustainable Ecosystems

639

(10)

Examples of Ecosystem Management

639

(1)

21st-Century Ecosystem Management in Pacific Northwest Forests

640

(9)

Variable-Retention Harvest System

642

(3)

Lifeboating: Refugia and Inocula

642

(1)

Structural Enrichment and Enhanced Connectivity

642

(2)

Designing a Variable-Retention Harvest System

644

(1)

Simulating Harvests and Forest Fragmentation

645

(4)

Remote Sensing

649

(3)

Suggested Readings

652

(1)

PART 6 Forests of the World

653

(26)

CHAPTER 22 FORESTS OF THE WORLD

655

(24)

Evolution of Modern Tree Species

655

(3)

Present-Day Forests of the World

658

(5)

Geographical-Climatic Classification

659

(2)

Physiognomic-Structural Classification

661

(1)

Floristic Classification

662

(1)

Multifactor Classification

662

(1)

A Classification of Forests

663

(1)

Tropical Forests

663

(5)

Classification of Tropical Forests

663

(1)

Swamp Forest

664

(1)

Salt-Water Tropical Shorelines

664

(1)

Fresh-Water Swamps

665

(1)

Rain Forest

665

(2)

Monsoon Forest

667

(1)

Dry Forest

667

(1)

Freeze-Hardy Forests

668

(10)

Boreal Forest Taxa

668

(3)

Spruces

669

(1)

Firs

669

(1)

Larches

670

(1)

Pines

670

(1)

Birches and Aspens

670

(1)

Temperate Forest Taxa

671

(7)

Pines

671

(2)

Soft Pines

672

(1)

Hard Pines

672

(1)

Oaks

673

(2)

Beeches and Maples

675

(1)

Miscellaneous Hardwoods

676

(1)

Miscellaneous Conifers

676

(2)

Suggested Readings

678

(1)

LITERATURE CITED

679

(74)

SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF TREES AND SHRUBS

753

(10)

INDEX

763

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Forest Ecology, 4th Edition

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials