Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling

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ISBN: 9780521548656 | 0521548659
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 6/13/2005

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This well-received and comprehensive textbook on atmospheric processes and numerical methods has been thoroughly revised and updated. This edition includes a wide range of new numerical techniques for solving problems in areas such as cloud microphysics, ocean-atmosphere exchange processes and atmospheric radiative properties. It also contains improved descriptions of atmospheric physics, dynamics, radiation, and aerosol and cloud processes. It is essential reading for researchers, scientists and advanced students to successfully study air pollution and meteorology.

Preface

xiii

Acknowledgments

xiv

1 Introduction

(11)

1.1 Brief history of meteorological sciences

(4)

1.2 Brief history of air-pollution science

(1)

1.3 The merging of air-pollution and meteorological sciences

(1)

1.4 Weather, climate, and air pollution

(2)

1.5 Scales of motion

(1)

1.6 Atmospheric processes

(4)

2 Atmospheric structure, composition, and thermodynamics

(49)

2.1 Pressure, density, and composition

(6)

2.2 Temperature structure

(10)

2.3 Equation of state

(6)

2.4 Changes of pressure with altitude

(3)

2.5 Water in the atmosphere

(10)

2.6 First law of thermodynamics

(10)

2.7 Summary

(1)

2.8 Problems

(2)

2.9 Computer programming practice

(1)

3 The continuity and thermodynamic energy equations

(21)

3.1 Definitions

(4)

3.2 Continuity equations

(3)

3.3 Expanded continuity equations

(10)

3.4 Thermodynamic energy equation

(2)

3.5 Summary

(1)

3.6 Problems

(1)

3.7 Computer programming practice

(1)

4 The momentum equation in Cartesian and spherical coordinates

(56)

4.1 Horizontal coordinate systems

(5)

4.2 Newton's second law of motion

(24)

4.3 Applications of the momentum equation

111

(24)

4.4 Summary

135

(1)

4.5 Problems

136

(1)

4.6 Computer programming practice

137

(1)

5 Vertical-coordinate conversions

138

(31)

5.1 Hydrostatic and nonhydrostatic models

138

(5)

5.2 Altitude coordinate

143

(1)

5.3 Pressure coordinate

143

(8)

5.4 Sigma-pressure coordinate

151

(9)

5.5 Sigma-altitude coordinate

160

(7)

5.6 Summary

167

(1)

5.7 Problems

167

(1)

5.8 Computer programming practice

168

(1)

6 Numerical solutions to partial differential equations

169

(35)

6.1 Ordinary and partial differential equations

169

(1)

6.2 Operator splitting

170

(1)

6.3 Advection-diffusion equations

171

(1)

6.4 Finite-difference approximations

172

(20)

6.5 Series expansion methods

192

(7)

6.6 Finite-volume methods

199

(1)

6.7 Advection schemes used in air-quality models

199

(3)

6.8 Summary

202

(1)

6.9 Problems

202

(1)

6.10 Computer programming practice

203

(1)

7 Finite-differencing the equations of atmospheric dynamics

204

(24)

7.1 Vertical model grid

204

(4)

7.2 The continuity equation for air

208

(3)

7.3 The species continuity equation

211

(2)

7.4 The thermodynamic energy equation

213

(1)

7.5 The horizontal momentum equations

214

(7)

7.6 The hydrostatic equation

221

(1)

7.7 Order of calculations

222

(1)

7.8 Time-stepping schemes

222

(2)

7.9 Summary

224

(1)

7.10 Problems

224

(1)

7.11 Computer programming practice

225

(1)

7.12 Modeling project

225

(3)

8 Boundary-layer and surface processes

228

(45)

8.1 Turbulent fluxes of momentum, energy, and moisture

228

(2)

8.2 Friction wind speed

230

(1)

8.3 Surface roughness lengths

231

(4)

8.4 Parameterizations of kinematic turbulent fluxes

235

(15)

8.5 Eddy diffusion above the surface layer

250

(4)

8.6 Ground surface temperature and soil moisture

254

(17)

8.7 Summary

271

(1)

8.8 Problems

271

(1)

8.9 Computer programming practice

272

(1)

9 Radiative energy transfer

273

(63)

9.1 Energy transfer processes

273

(2)

9.2 Electromagnetic spectrum

275

(8)

9.3 Light processes

283

(7)

9.4 Absorption and scattering by gases and particles

290

(23)

9.5 Visibility

313

(3)

9.6 Optical depth

316

(1)

9.7 Solar zenith angle

317

(3)

9.8 The radiative transfer equation

320

(14)

9.9 Summary

334

(1)

9.10 Problems

334

(1)

9.11 Computer programming practice

335

(1)

10 Gas-phase species, chemical reactions, and reaction rates

336

(21)

10.1 Atmospheric gases and their molecular structures

336

(6)

10.2 Chemical reactions and photoprocesses

342

(2)

10.3 Reaction rates

344

(2)

10.4 Reaction rate coefficients

346

(5)

10.5 Sets of reactions

351

(2)

10.6 Stiff systems

353

(2)

10.7 Summary

355

(1)

10.8 Problems

355

(1)

10.9 Computer programming practice

356

(1)

11 Urban, free-tropospheric, and stratospheric chemistry

357

(61)

11.1 Free-tropospheric photochemistry

357

(18)

11.2 Urban photochemistry

375

(18)

11.3 Stratospheric photochemistry

393

(22)

11.4 Summary

415

(1)

11.5 Problems

416

(1)

11.6 Computer programming practice

417

(1)

12 Methods of solving chemical ordinary differential equations

418

(28)

12.1 Characteristics of chemical ODEs

418

(3)

12.2 Analytical solutions to ODEs

421

(1)

12.3 Taylor series solution to ODEs

421

(1)

12.4 Forward Euler solution to ODEs

422

(2)

12.5 Backward Euler solution to ODEs

424

(2)

12.6 Simple exponential and quasi-steady-state solutions to ODEs

426

(1)

12.7 Multistep implicit-explicit (MIE) solution to ODEs

427

(5)

12.8 Gear's solution to ODEs

432

(7)

12.9 Family solution to ODEs

439

(3)

12.10 Summary

442

(1)

12.11 Problems

442

(1)

12.12 Computer programming practice

443

(1)

12.13 Modeling project

444

(2)

13 Particle components, size distributions, and size structures

446

(24)

13.1 Introduction to particles

446

(1)

13.2 Aerosol, fog, and cloud composition

447

(2)

13.3 Discrete size distributions

449

(5)

13.4 Continuous size distributions

454

(8)

13.5 Evolution of size distributions over time

462

(5)

13.6 Summary

467

(1)

13.7 Problems

468

(1)

13.8 Computer programming practice

468

(2)

14 Aerosol emission and nucleation

470

(24)

14.1 Aerosol emission

470

(14)

14.2 Nucleation

484

(8)

14.3 Summary

492

(1)

14.4 Problems

493

(1)

14.5 Computer programming practice

493

(1)

15 Coagulation

494

(31)

15.1 Implicit coagulation

494

(2)

15.2 Semiimplicit Coagulation

496

(2)

15.3 Comparison with analytical solutions

498

(2)

15.4 Coagulation among multiple particle distributions

500

(5)

15.5 Particle flow regimes

505

(3)

15.6 Coagulation kernel

508

(14)

15.7 Summary

522

(1)

15.8 Problems

523

(1)

15.9 Computer programming practice

523

(2)

16 Condensation, evaporation, deposition, and sublimation

525

(28)

16.1 Fluxes to and from a single drop

525

(3)

16.2 Corrections to growth parameters

528

(12)

16.3 Fluxes to a particle with multiple components

540

(1)

16.4 Fluxes to a population of particles

540

(2)

16.5 Solutions to growth equations

542

(3)

16.6 Solving homogeneous nucleation with condensation

545

(2)

16.7 Effects of condensation on coagulation

547

(1)

16.8 Ice crystal growth

548

(2)

16.9 Summary

550

(1)

16.10 Problems

550

(1)

16.11 Computer programming practice

551

(2)

17 Chemical equilibrium and dissolution processes

553

(45)

17.1 Definitions

553

(1)

17.2 Equilibrium reactions

554

(4)

17.3 Equilibrium relation and coefficients

558

(4)

17.4 Forms of equilibrium-coefficient equations

562

(3)

17.5 Mean binary solute activity coefficients

565

(2)

17.6 Temperature dependence of binary solute activity coefficients

567

(1)

17.7 Mean mixed solute activity coefficients

568

(2)

17.8 The water equation

570

(4)

17.9 Solid formation and deliquescence relative humidity

574

(1)

17.10 Example equilibrium problem

575

(2)

17.11 Mass-flux iteration method

577

(2)

17.12 Analytical equilibrium iteration method

579

(3)

17.13 Equilibrium solver results

582

(1)

17.14 Nonequilibrium between gases and particles

583

(11)

17.15 Summary

594

(2)

17.16 Problems

596

(1)

17.17 Computer programming practice

596

(2)

18 Cloud thermodynamics and dynamics

598

(47)

18.1 Fog and cloud types and formation mechanisms

598

(4)

18.2 Moist adiabatic and pseudoadiabatic processes

602

(4)

18.3 Cloud development by free convection

606

(2)

18.4 Entrainment

608

(2)

18.5 Vertical momentum equation in a cloud

610

(2)

18.6 Convective available potential energy

612

(1)

18.7 Cumulus parameterizations

612

(2)

18.8 Cloud microphysics

614

(28)

18.9 Summary

642

(1)

18.10 Problems

643

(1)

18.11 Computer programming practice

643

(2)

19 Irreversible aqueous chemistry

645

(16)

19.1 Significance of aqueous chemical reactions

645

(1)

19.2 Mechanisms of converting S(IV) to S(VI)

646

(6)

19.3 Diffusion within a drop

652

(2)

19.4 Solving growth and aqueous chemical ODEs

654

(5)

19.5 Summary

659

(1)

19.6 Problems

659

(1)

19.7 Computer programming practice

660

(1)

20 Sedimentation, dry deposition, and air-sea exchange

661

(20)

20.1 Sedimentation

661

(4)

20.2 Dry deposition

665

(5)

20.3 Dry deposition and sedimentation calculations

670

(2)

20.4 Air-sea flux of carbon dioxide and other gases

672

(7)

20.5 Summary

679

(1)

20.6 Problems

679

(1)

20.7 Computer programming practice

679

(2)

21 Model design, application, and testing

681

(28)

21.1 Steps in model formulation

681

(19)

21.2 Example model simulations

700

(7)

21.3 Summary

707

(1)

21.4 Problems

707

(1)

21.5 Computer programming practice

707

(2)

Appendix A Conversions and constants

709

(5)

A.1 Distance conversions

709

(1)

A.2 Volume conversions

709

(1)

A.3 Mass conversions

709

(1)

A.4 Temperature conversions

710

(1)

A.5 Force conversions

710

(1)

A.6 Pressure conversions

710

(1)

A.7 Energy conversions

710

(1)

A.8 Power conversions

710

(1)

A.9 Speed conversions

710

(1)

A.10 Constants

711

(3)

Appendix B Tables

714

(38)

B.1 Standard atmospheric variables versus altitude

714

(1)

B.2 Solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere

715

(1)

B.3 Chemical symbols and structures of gases

716

(12)

B.4 Gas-phase reactions

728

(10)

B.5 Chemicals involved in equilibrium and aqueous reactions

738

(2)

B.6 Thermodynamic data

740

(1)

B.7 Equilibrium reactions and rate coefficients

741

(2)

B.8 Irreversible aqueous reactions

743

(3)

B.9 Solute activity coefficient data

746

(2)

B.10 Water activity data

748

(1)

B.11 Surface resistance data

749

(2)

B.12 More surface resistance data

751

(1)

References

752

(32)

Index

784

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Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials