Gender Voices

Does the language we speak create and sustain a sexist culture? This controversial and exciting proposal has fascinated feminists, psychologists and linguists alike for well over a decade. The authors of Gender Voices explore in a clear and comprehensive manner the idea that language shapes individual lives-that through our speech we all help recreate gender divisions in society. Their introductory chapter establishes the relationship between language and social structure. Chapter 2 explores the human voice and traditional notions of 'femininity', 'masculinity' and sexuality. Subsequent chapters analyze differences between women and men in pronunciation and choice of words; discourse patterns and power relationships; the sexist structure of language; and language consciousness. The possibilities for social and linguistic change are examined in the final chapters.

David Graddol is a British linguist who has worked in applied linguistics, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, and history of linguistics. He is perhaps best known for his work regarding how English as a world language may develop. Will Swann is the author of Gender Voices, published by Wiley.

Acknowledgements

ix

Introduction

1

(11)

The Study of Language and Gender

2

(1)

The Nature of Language

3

(4)

Language is Personal

4

(1)

Language is Social

5

(1)

The Saussurean Model

5

(1)

The Semiotic Approach

6

(1)

The Nature of Gender and the Gendered Nature of Society

7

(1)

The Relation Between Language and Gender

8

(4)

Language Reflects Gender Divisions

9

(1)

Language Creates Gender Divisions

10

(1)

There is an Interplay Between Language and Social Structure

10

(2)

The Voice of Authority

12

(29)

Introduction

13

(1)

The Physical Basis of the Voice

14

(4)

The Evidence for Social Learning of the Voice

18

(9)

Cross-cultural Evidence

23

(2)

Pre-adolescent Children

25

(2)

The Social Meaning of Men's and Women's Voices

27

(12)

Sociobiological Explanations

27

(4)

Social Psychological Explanations

31

(4)

Socioplitical Explanations

35

(4)

Conclusion

39

(2)

Accents of Femininity? Gender Differences in Language Use

41

(28)

Introduction

41

(1)

Sex-exclusive Differences and Differences of Degree

42

(4)

Social Stratification Studies

46

(12)

Some Initial Interpretations

50

(1)

Criticisms of Social Stratification Studies

51

(7)

Alternative Accounts of Female and Male Speech

58

(9)

Social Psychological Explanations

58

(1)

Social Networks and Patterns of Interaction

59

(6)

Gender Signals

65

(2)

Conclusion

67

(2)

Conversation: The Sexual Division of Labour

69

(26)

Introduction

69

(1)

Speaking and Silence

70

(4)

Talking in Class - An Illustration

71

(2)

Aiding and Abetting: Gender and Other Factors

73

(1)

Conversation Management

74

(14)

The Supporting Role

75

(2)

Interruptions - Everyday Insults

77

(3)

Rings and Slingshots: The Use of Directives

80

(3)

The Language of Uncertainty

83

(5)

Women's Language? Some Qualifications

88

(1)

Women's Language: Explanations

89

(5)

Gender Subcultures

89

(2)

Gender and Power

91

(1)

Gender and Politeness

92

(2)

Conclusion

94

(1)

Is Language Sexist?

95

(40)

Introduction

95

(4)

The Disappearing Woman and the Ascent of Man

99

(12)

The Feminine as a Marked Category

99

(11)

Lexical Gaps

110

(1)

Woman Scorned

111

(8)

Semantic Derogation and the Linguistic Disparagement of Women

112

(2)

Women, Ladies and Girls

114

(4)

How to Describe a Woman

118

(1)

Sexism Abroad

119

(10)

Sexism in Europe: the `Natural' v. `Grammatical' Gender Distinction

120

(4)

Words for Women and Men - Examples from the Lebanon and Japan

124

(2)

Neutral Languages?

126

(3)

Sexism: Some Qualifications

129

(5)

The Notion of Bias

129

(1)

Intentionality

130

(1)

Language System v. Language Use

131

(1)

World Knowledge and Knowledge of Language

132

(1)

Man-made Language

132

(2)

Language and Thought

134

(1)

Conclusion

134

(1)

Language, Communication and Consciousness

135

(39)

Introduction

135

(1)

Language Reflects Social Divisions: A Model of Structure and Agency

136

(10)

The Role of Individual Speakers

138

(1)

Constraints Arising from Social Structures

139

(2)

The Role of Ideology and Institutions

141

(4)

The Structure and Agency Model and Implications for Change

145

(1)

Language Creates Social Divisions: Models of Linguistic Determinism

146

(19)

The Whorfian Hypothesis

147

(9)

The Semiotic Approach

156

(1)

The Poststructuralist Model

157

(7)

Possibilities for Change

164

(1)

The Dialectical Position: A Linguistic Model of Discourse

165

(7)

Propositional Structure

165

(2)

Discourse and Social Reality

167

(5)

Conclusion

172

(2)

Linguistic Intervention

174

(23)

Introduction

175

(1)

Intervention and Change: Some Case Studies

175

(14)

Computer Conferencing at the Open University

175

(3)

Equal Opportunities in Training: Three Examples from Industry

178

(6)

Equality in the Classroom

184

(3)

Equality Guidelines for Course Materials

187

(2)

Language and Social Change

189

(1)

Strategies for Intervention

190

(3)

Is It Worth Promoting Linguistic Change?

193

(2)

Conclusion

195

(2)

References

197

(12)

Index

209

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Summary

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Supplemental Materials