General Economic History

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ISBN: 9780486425146 | 0486425142
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The final work of the great sociologist, economist, and political scientist starts with descriptions and analyses of the agrarian systems, and then explores manorial system, guilds, and early capitalism, organization of industry and mining, development of commerce, technical requisites for transporting goods, banking systems, evolution of capitalism and capitalistic spirit.

PART ONE HOUSEHOLD, CLAN, VILLAGE AND MANOR

Agricultural Organization and the Problem of Agrarian Communism

(23)

The German agrarian organization

(1)

Settlement relations

(3)

Property relations

(1)

Class relationships in the peasantry

(2)

Spread of the Germanic settlement form

(1)

Westphalia

(1)

Alpine economy

(1)

The Zadruga

(1)

Vestiges of Roman field divisions

(1)

Origin and dissolution of the Germanic agrarian system

(3)

The Celtic agrarian organization

(2)

The Russian Mir, its effects on economic life and its origin

(4)

The Dutch-East-Indian field system

(1)

Chinese agrarian organization

(1)

Indian agrarian organization

(1)

The German Gehoferschaft

(1)

The theory of primitive agrarian communism

(1)

Primitive agriculture

(2)

Property Systems and Social Groups

(25)

Forms of Appropriation

(2)

The House Community and the Clan

(9)

The small-family

(1)

The socialistic theory of the origin of marriage

(2)

Prostitution

(3)

Sexual freedom and its forms

(1)

Other historical stages of sexual life in the socialistic theory

(2)

Legitimate marriage under patriarchal law and its contrasts

(1)

The Evolution of the Family as Conditioned by Economic and non-Economic Factors

(6)

Primitive economic life; the theory of the three economic stages

(1)

Division of labor between the sexes and types of communalization

(1)

The men's house

(2)

The struggle between patriarchal and matriarchal law

(2)

Group marriage

(1)

Patriarchal authority of the man

(1)

The Evolution of the Clan

(3)

Types of clans

(1)

Organized and unorganized clans

(1)

History of the clan

(1)

Prophecy and the clan

(1)

Bureaucracy and the clan

(1)

Evolution of the House Community

(5)

The primitive house community and property relations

(1)

Development into other forms of economic organization

(1)

The patriarchal house community

(1)

Its dissolution

(1)

Monogamy as the exclusive marriage form

(2)

The Origin of Seigniorial Proprietorship

(14)

The small-family as point of departure

(1)

Roots of seigniorial proprietorship: Chieftainship

(1)

Conquest of hostile populations, commendation, seigniorial land-settlement and leasing

(2)

Magical charism

(1)

Individual trade

(2)

Fiscal roots of seigniorial proprietorship, various forms

(1)

Individual trade of princes, irrigation culture of the modern orient

(2)

Oikos-economy

(1)

Taxation systems of princes

(1)

Methods of exploiting the taxing power

(1)

Delegagation of taxation to chieftain or landed proprietor

(1)

Seigniorial proprietorship in colonial regions

(1)

The occidental, Japanese and Russian feudal systems

(3)

The Manor

(9)

Conditions back of the development of the manor

(1)

Immunity and judicial authority

(1)

Precaria and beneficium

(1)

The manorial holding (Fronhof)

(1)

Political (``socage'') district (Bannbezirk) and manorial law

(1)

Freedom and unfreedom of the peasant

(3)

Exploitation of the peasant by rent exactions, forms of these

(2)

The Position of the Peasants in Various Western Countries Before the Entrance of Capitalism

(5)

France

(1)

Italy, Germany

(2)

England

(2)

Capitalistic Development of the Manor

(36)

The Plantation

(5)

Types of plantations

(1)

Plantations in antiquity

(2)

The southern states of the U. S. A.

(2)

Estate Economy

(8)

Types of estates

(1)

Stock raising without capital or with little capital

(1)

Intensive capitalistic pastoral economy

(1)

Cereal production in England

(1)

Russia

(1)

Germany, the west

(2)

the east and ``hereditary dependency,''

(1)

Organization of an east-Elbe estate

(2)

Poland and White Russia

(1)

The Dissolution of the Manorial System

(23)

Causes and Processes of liberation of land and peasants

(3)

Various countries: China

(1)

India, the near east

(1)

Japan

(1)

Greece and Rome

(2)

England

(1)

France

(1)

South and west Germany

(1)

East Germany, Austria

100

(3)

Prussia

103

(3)

Russia

106

(2)

The present agrarian organization

108

(1)

Inheritance law, primogeniture

108

(1)

fidei-commissa and entails

109

(1)

Political results of the break-up of feudalism, landed aristocracies

110

(1)

Private property in land

111

(4)

PART TWO INDUSTRY AND MINING DOWN TO THE BEGINNING OF THE CAPITALISTIC DEVELOPMENT

Principal Forms of the Economic Organization of Industry

115

(7)

Scope of the concept of industry

115

(1)

Types of raw-material transformation

115

(1)

Industry in the house community, division of labor between the sexes

116

(1)

Specialization and communal labor

117

(1)

Skilled trades

117

(1)

Relation of the worker to the market

118

(1)

to the job

118

(1)

to the place of work

119

(1)

to the fixed investment

120

(2)

Stages in the Development of Industry and Mining

122

(14)

House industry and tribal industry

122

(1)

Types of inter-group specialization, castes

123

(1)

Local specialization, demiurgical labor

124

(1)

Specialization in village industry and on the feudal manor (Fronhof)

124

(1)

On the estate or oikos

124

(2)

Transition to production to order and for the market, the worker as labor power or as rent-payer

126

(1)

Shop industry and ergasterion

126

(4)

Differences in the labor organization of antiquity and of the middle ages, slavery

130

(3)

Medieval craftsmen and the town

133

(1)

and industrial organizations

134

(2)

The Craft Guilds

136

(8)

The nature of the guild

136

(1)

Unfree guilds

136

(1)

Ritualistic guilds

137

(1)

Guild policy, internal

138

(3)

external

141

(1)

Later products of guild policy

142

(2)

The Origin of the European Guilds

144

(9)

The manorial law theory

144

(1)

criticized

145

(1)

Production of skilled craftsmen by the feudal manor

146

(1)

Free and unfree craftsmen

147

(1)

Guild, town and town lord

147

(2)

Livelihood policy of the guilds

149

(1)

Guild struggles, with rural workers, laborers, merchants

150

(1)

Guild wars

151

(2)

Disintegration of the Guilds and Development of the Domestic System

153

(9)

Displacement of the guild, rise of craftsmen to position of merchant and factor

153

(1)

Subdivision and fusion of guilds

154

(1)

Relation to importer and exporter

154

(1)

Domestic industry, its varying development in European countries

155

(4)

Stages in the development of the domestic or putting-out system

159

(1)

Domestic industry over the world

160

(2)

Shop Production. The Factory and Its Fore-Runners

162

(16)

Forms of shop production, factory and manufactory

162

(1)

Prerequisites of the factory, steady, mass demand and efficient technology

163

(1)

supply of free labor

164

(1)

Fore-runners of the factory in the west, communal establishments

165

(2)

private establishments (early English factories)

167

(2)

New developments through the interaction of specialization and combination of labor and application of non-human power

169

(1)

The market of the specialized large industry, political demand, luxury demand and substitute luxuries

169

(2)

Monopoly and state concession as basis of older large-scale industry

171

(2)

Relation between factory, craft work, domestic industry and machinery

173

(1)

Results of factory industry for entrepreneur and laborer

174

(1)

Obstacles to development of shop industry into the modern factory in various countries

175

(3)

Mining Prior to the Development of Modern Capitalism

178

(17)

Mining the first field industrialized

178

(1)

Legal problems

178

(1)

History of mining law and of mining, earliest mining outside the occident

179

(1)

Greece

180

(1)

Rome and the middle ages

181

(1)

Germany

181

(1)

other western countries

182

(1)

Periods in the history of German mining in the middle ages

183

(3)

Development of industrial forms down to the appearance of modern capitalism

186

(4)

Smelteries

190

(1)

The ore trade

190

(1)

Coal mining

190

(5)

PART THREE COMMERCE AND EXCHANGE IN THE PRE-CAPITALISTIC AGE

Points of Departure in the Development of Commerce

195

(4)

Oldest trade that between ethnic groups

195

(1)

Peddling

195

(1)

Trading castes

195

(1)

The Jews as an out-cast commercial class

196

(1)

Seigniorial trade and its varieties

196

(1)

Gift trade and trade of princes

197

(2)

Technical Requisites for the Transportation of Goods

199

(3)

Primitive transport conditions

199

(1)

Land transport and its primitive possibilities

199

(1)

Water transport

199

(1)

Navigation

200

(1)

Development of sailing

200

(2)

Forms of Organization of Transportation and of Commerce

202

(21)

The Alien Trader

202

(13)

Ocean commerce and piracy

202

(1)

Merchant shipping of princes and private persons in the ancient world

202

(1)

Roman conditions

202

(1)

Shipping and mercantile organization in Greece and Rome

203

(1)

Legal forms of commerce

204

(1)

Sea loans in antiquity

204

(1)

Medieval conditions

205

(1)

Shipping partnerships and sea loans

205

(1)

Commenda and societas maris

206

(1)

The turnover of medieval sea trade

207

(1)

Land commerce, means of transport

208

(1)

Turnover, duration of voyage and commercial organization

209

(2)

Inland shipping in the middle ages

211

(1)

Protection of the merchant, safe conduct

212

(1)

Legal protection, reprisal, proxenia, hostage, the hanse

212

(1)

Settlements of merchants

213

(1)

Market organization

214

(1)

The Resident Trader

215

(5)

Town origin of the resident merchant

215

(1)

Stages in the development

215

(1)

Retail trade dominant in medieval commerce

216

(1)

Struggles of the resident trader for monopoly of the town market

216

(2)

for internal equality of opportunity

218

(1)

prohibition of forestalling, right of sharing

218

(1)

Street and staple compulsion

219

(1)

Struggles with consumers

220

(1)

Beginnings of wholesale trade

220

(1)

The Trade of the Fairs

220

(3)

Nature of the fair

220

(1)

The fairs of Champagne

220

(2)

Other fairs

222

(1)

Forms of Commercial Enterprise

223

(7)

Calculability and association of interest

223

(1)

Position numerals, accounting and the trading company

223

(2)

The commenda as occasional enterprise

225

(1)

Origin of permanent organization for commercial enterprise

226

(1)

Credit and the means of guaranteeing it, house-community and joint liability

226

(2)

Separation of the property of the company

228

(1)

The commandite

229

(1)

Hanseatic company forms

229

(1)

Mercantile Guilds

230

(6)

Nature of the mercantile guild

230

(1)

Local guilds of foreigners in the west, the hanses

230

(1)

Guilds of resident traders in China and India

230

(2)

in the west

232

(1)

History of the occidental guilds

233

(1)

Commercial policies of guilds, especially the German Hanse

234

(2)

Money and Monetary History

236

(18)

Money and private property

236

(1)

The functions of money, money as means of payment only, domestic money

236

(1)

Money as means of accumulation and mark of class distinction

237

(1)

Money as a general medium of exchange

238

(1)

Varieties of money

238

(1)

Valuation of different forms

239

(2)

The precious metals as the basis of the monetary system

241

(1)

Coinage

241

(1)

Technique of coining

242

(1)

Metallic standards

243

(1)

History of gold and silver values, eastern Asia and the ancient east

244

(1)

Rome and the middle ages

244

(3)

Coinage debasement in the middle ages

247

(1)

Free coinage

248

(1)

Increase in overseas production of the precious metals from the 16th century

248

(2)

Obstacles to the rationalization of money

250

(1)

Modern monetary policies

251

(3)

Banking and Dealings in Money in the Pre-Capitalistic Age

254

(13)

Character of the oldest banking transactions

254

(2)

Banking in Rome

256

(1)

Temple banks and state monopolization of banking in antiquity

256

(2)

Functions of the medieval bank

258

(2)

Liquidity, establishment of banking monopolies

260

(1)

The bill of exchange

261

(2)

Banking in England, the Bank of England

263

(2)

Banking outside of Europe, China and India

265

(2)

Interests in the Pre-Capitalistic Period

267

(8)

Absence or prohibition of interest in early society

267

(1)

Evasion of the prohibition, the chattel loan

268

(1)

Medieval methods of meeting the need for credit, ecclesiastical prohibition of interest

269

(1)

The role of the Jews

270

(1)

of Protestantism

271

(4)

PART FOUR THE ORIGIN OF MODERN CAPITALISM

The Meaning and Presuppositions of Modern Capitalism

275

(4)

Capitalism a method of provision for want satisfaction

275

(1)

Capitalistic supply of everyday requirements peculiar to the occident

276

(1)

General requisites for the existence of capitalism

276

(1)

Calculable law

277

(2)

The External Facts in the Evolution of Capitalism

279

(7)

Commercialization

279

(1)

The stock company, war-loans

279

(1)

Financing of commercial undertakings, the regulated company

280

(1)

The great colonial companies

281

(1)

Financing by the state, administration without a budget, tax farming

282

(1)

The exchequer, the special-levy system

283

(1)

Monopolies

284

(2)

The First Great Speculative Crises

286

(6)

Speculation and Crises

286

(1)

The tulip craze

286

(1)

John Law

286

(2)

England, the South Sea Company

288

(2)

Later speculative crises

290

(1)

Capital creation, the age of iron

290

(2)

Free Wholesale Trade

292

(6)

Separation of wholesale from retail trade in the 18th century, forms of wholesale organization

292

(1)

The fair and the exchange

293

(1)

News service and the wholesale trade

294

(2)

Commercial organization and transportation

296

(2)

Colonial Policy from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century

298

(4)

Accumulation of wealth through colonial exploitation

298

(1)

Slavery and the slave trade

299

(1)

Colonial trade and capitalism

300

(1)

The end of capitalistic exploitation of colonies with abolition of slavery

300

(2)

The Development of Industrial Technique

302

(13)

Factory, machine and apparatus

302

(1)

The earliest true factory in England

302

(1)

Cotton manufacture crucial in the rationalization and mechanization of work

303

(1)

Primary role of coal and iron

304

(1)

Results, liberation of production from the limitations of organic materials and of labor, and from tradition

305

(1)

The recruiting of the labor force

306

(1)

The market of the factory, the military demand

307

(2)

The luxury demand

309

(1)

Mass demand

310

(1)

The price revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries

311

(1)

Inventions

311

(1)

Characteristics and causes of western capitalism

312

(1)

Historical conditions of its development

313

(2)

Citizenship

315

(23)

Citizenship as an economic, political, and social-class concept

315

(1)

Contributions of the city in various fields of culture

316

(1)

Various meanings of the term city

317

(1)

City as a unitary community peculiar to the occident, reasons for this

318

(1)

Origin in oath of brotherhood

319

(1)

Rise of cities in the east prevented by peculiarities of military organization

320

(1)

Irrigation culture and administrative organization

321

(1)

Obstacles in ideas of magic

322

(1)

Similarities between cities of antiquity and of the middle ages

323

(1)

between classical and medieval democracy

324

(2)

Contrasts between classical and medieval democracy, absence of the guild and guild policy in the former

326

(2)

Antiquity characterized instead by conflict between landowners and landless

328

(1)

and by increasing sharpness of class distinctions with growth of democracy

329

(2)

The ancient city as a political guild with military acquisitive interests, and chronic war as its normal condition

331

(1)

Contrasts in urban development between south and north in medieval Europe

332

(2)

The city and capitalism, irrational capitalism

334

(1)

Rational capitalism a product of the occident since the close of the middle ages

334

(2)

In antiquity the cities lose their freedom to the bureaucratically organized state and world-empire, which throttled capitalism with compulsory contributions and services

336

(1)

In modern times they lose it to competing national states which are forced into alliance with capitalism

336

(2)

The Rational State

338

(14)

The State Itself; Law and Officialdom

338

(5)

The rational state peculiar to the occident

338

(1)

Administration by specialists and rational law

339

(1)

Roman law, rationalization of procedure through interaction with canon law

340

(1)

Revival of Roman law and capitalism

341

(1)

Historical descent of characteristic institutions of capitalism

342

(1)

Formalistic law and capitalism

342

(1)

The Economic Policy of the Rational State

343

(4)

Fiscal interests and public welfare the two types of state economic policy before the development of mercantilism

343

(1)

Obstruction of deliberate economic policy in the east by ritualism, caste, and clan

344

(1)

The occident, beginnings of economic policy on the part of rulers under the Carolingians

345

(1)

Economic policy of the Church, especially of the monasteries

345

(1)

The Emperor and the territorial princes

346

(1)

England

347

(1)

Mercantilism

347

(5)

Nature and significance of mercantilism

347

(1)

Its program

347

(1)

England distinctively its home

348

(1)

Two forms of mercantilism, class-monopolies

349

(1)

nationalistic mercantilism

350

(1)

Development of capitalism in England alongside mercantilism; capitalism and Puritanism

351

(1)

End of English mercantilism

351

(1)

The Evolution of the Capitalistic Spirit

352

(19)

Neither population growth nor importation of precious metals crucial in creating western capitalism

352

(2)

External conditions of its development

354

(1)

Rationalistic economic ethic decisive

354

(1)

History of economic ethics; at the beginning, traditionalism, stereotyping of conduct

354

(1)

Intensification of traditionalism by material interests and by magic

355

(1)

Traditionalism not overcome by the economic impulse alone

355

(1)

Breakdown of opposition of internal and external ethics

356

(1)

Capitalism necessarily arises in a region with an ethical theory hostile to it

357

(1)

Economic ethics of the Church

357

(1)

The Jews had no part in the creation of modern capitalism

358

(2)

Judaism gave Christianity its hostility to magic

360

(2)

Overthrow of magic by rational prophecy

362

(1)

Prophecy absent in China, in India created a religious aristocracy

362

(1)

Judaism and Christianity plebeian religions

363

(1)

Significance of asceticism for rationalization of life, Tibet, medieval monasticism

364

(1)

Diffusion of the old religious asceticism over the worldly life by the Reformation

365

(2)

The Protestant conception of the calling, and capitalism

367

(1)

Protestant-ascetic economic ethics stripped of its religious import by the Enlightenment; social consequences

368

(3)

Notes

371

(12)

Index of Names

383

(2)

Subject Index

385

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General Economic History

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials