Governmental Illegitimacy in International Law

When is a de facto authority not entitled to be considered a 'government' for the purposes of International Law? In this book, Brad Roth offers a detailed examination of collective non-recognition of governments.

Brad Roth is Assistant Professor of Legal Studies, Law School, Wayne State University, Detroit

Preface

xi

Acknowledgements

xiv

Foreword

xv

Abbreviations

xx

Table of Cases

xxii

Table of Treaties and United Nations Resolutions

xxiv

International Politics, International Law, and the Legitimacy of Domestic Governments

1

(16)

The issue: illegitimate governments as a legal category

1

(4)

Legal norms and international security

5

(3)

The paradox of sovereignty in international law

8

(9)

Legal Legitimacy in Theoretical Perspective

17

(20)

The question of legitimate authority

20

(13)

State illegitimacy: self-determination of whom?

22

(4)

Governmental illegitimacy: who speaks for the political community?

26

(4)

Humanitarian intervention and the natural duties of states

30

(3)

Legal legitimacy and international political morality

33

(4)

Popular Sovereignty and Domestic Constitutional Orders

37

(38)

Vehicles of legitimation

41

(10)

Tradition

43

(3)

Charisma

46

(2)

Legality

48

(3)

The constitutional order and its limits

51

(18)

The ``constitution'' in positivist jurisprudence

51

(4)

Constitutionalism

55

(1)

A political definition of ``constitution''

55

(2)

The absence of an uncommanded commander

57

(4)

The state of exception

61

(3)

The significance of the exception: sovereign will and the limits of constitutionalism

64

(4)

Constitutional orders and international recognition

68

(1)

The primacy of the legitimating vision

69

(6)

The Rise and Fall of Revolutionary-Democratic Dictatorship

75

(46)

Theoretical foundations of revolutionary democracy

77

(27)

``Totalitarian'' democracy and positive liberty

77

(7)

The Rousseauian framework

84

(1)

Moral freedom and the political community

84

(3)

The general will

87

(6)

The Marxian framework

93

(1)

Freedom and species-essence

93

(3)

Dictatorship of the proletariat

96

(8)

Teleological democracy and vanguard dictatorship

104

(9)

The challenge of substantive democracy

104

(2)

The ruling party as vanguard of the sovereign citizenry

106

(6)

Vanguardism and the decision

112

(1)

Revolutionary-democratic dictatorship and contemporary international discourse

113

(8)

Consequences of the rise of revolutionary dictatorship

113

(5)

Consequences of the fall

118

(3)

Legal Legitimacy and Recognition of Governments: A Doctrinal Guide

121

(80)

Recognition doctrine

124

(35)

The nature of recognition

124

(5)

The objects of recognition

129

(1)

Governments and states

130

(3)

Governments and institutions

133

(3)

The criteria of recognition

136

(1)

Effective control

137

(5)

Legitimism

142

(7)

Additional factors and limited recognition

149

(3)

Legal consequences of non-recognition

152

(7)

Recognition and intervention in internal armed conflict

159

(37)

Sovereign equality and non-intervention norms

160

(2)

Non-intervention and popular sovereignty

162

(3)

Non-intervention and human rights

165

(7)

Non-intervention norms and internal armed factions

172

(1)

Recognition of insurgency

173

(4)

Recognition of belligerency

177

(5)

Recognition of the opposition as the de jure government

182

(3)

Military intervention by invitation

185

(3)

Military intervention by advance consent: invasion pacts

188

(8)

Legitimacy contests and modes of collective resolution

196

(5)

Ascertaining the Will of ``Peoples'': Governmental Illegitimacy and Self-Determination

201

(52)

From principle to right: self-determination in the scheme of sovereign equality

203

(20)

Evolution of the principle

204

(4)

The 1960 resolutions

208

(4)

Self-determination and the use of force

212

(5)

Self-determination and ``premature'' recognition of statehood: the case of Guinea-Bissau

217

(6)

Self-determination and popular will

223

(11)

Popular will and the determination of political status

223

(4)

Insurgent movement as ``sole legitimate representative''

227

(7)

Local depreivations of self-determination: Rhodesia, South Africa and beyond

234

(19)

Rhodesia

236

(7)

South Africa

243

(7)

Further implications

250

(3)

Two Governments, One State: Recognition Contests and the Use of Force

253

(68)

U.N. credentials and collective legal recognition

255

(29)

The U.N. credentials process

255

(6)

Credentials controversies

261

(1)

China (1949-71)

261

(2)

Hungary (1956-63)

263

(5)

Congo-Leopoldville (1960)

268

(6)

Yemen (1962)

274

(2)

Cambodia/Khmer Republic (1973-74)

276

(4)

Cambodia/Kampuchea (1979-90)

280

(3)

Recognition principles in credentials cases

283

(1)

Intervention by invitation of the legitimate government

284

(5)

Governmental illegitimacy and foreign intervention: three cases

289

(29)

Nicaragua (1979)

290

(1)

The de-legitimation of the Somoza government

290

(7)

Implications for the subsequent legitimacy of Sandinista rule

297

(6)

Implications for the norm of governmental illegitimacy

303

(1)

Grenada (1983)

303

(7)

Panama (1989)

310

(8)

Recognition contests, 1950-89: conclusions

318

(3)

Governmental Illegitimacy and Political Participation

321

(44)

Political participation in human rights law

324

(20)

Interpretation of the right

325

(1)

UDHR Article 21

325

(4)

ICCPR Article 25

329

(4)

Article 25 in the post-Cold War era

333

(5)

Implementation of the right

338

(5)

Conclusion: popular sovereignty and participatory rights

343

(1)

Legitimacy and quasi-plebiscitary elections

344

(19)

Demonstration elections

346

(2)

El Salvador (1982, 1984)

348

(3)

Nicaragua (1984)

351

(5)

Lessons of the 1980s

356

(1)

Arbitration elections

357

(1)

Nicaragua (1990)

358

(3)

The spread of U.N.-sponsored electoral arbitration

361

(2)

Participation and the basis of governmental authority

363

(2)

Haiti and Beyond: Popular Will and De-Legitimation in the 1990s

365

(48)

Collective responses to the breakdown of electoral arbitration

366

(28)

Hait (1991-4)

366

(2)

Background to the coup

368

(4)

International responses to the coup, 1991-93

372

(5)

Enforcement measures

377

(6)

The Haiti precedent

383

(4)

Angola (1992-93)

387

(1)

The Failure of electoral arbitration and the resumption of civil war

387

(2)

The Security Council response

389

(2)

Cambodia (1997-98)

391

(2)

Conclusions

393

(1)

The broader context: sovereignty and internal crises in the 1990s

394

(16)

Civil war and humanitarian catastrophe: Liberia and Somalia

394

(7)

Coups against elected governments in the 1990s

401

(4)

Sierra Leone and the New African Interventionism of the late 1990s

405

(5)

Governmental illegitimacy and collective practice

410

(3)

Conclusion: Sovereignty and Popular Will

413

(18)

The international law of governmental illegitimacy

413

(6)

The dangers of liberal-democratic legitimism

419

(9)

The danger to democracy and popular sovereignty

420

(6)

The danger to peace

426

(2)

Conclusion

428

(3)

Index

431

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Governmental Illegitimacy in International Law

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials