Handbook of Thin Films, Five-Volume Set

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ISBN: 9780125129084 | 0125129084
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 10/15/2001

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This five-volume handbook focuses on processing techniques, characterization methods, and physical properties of thin films (thin layers of insulating, conducting, or semiconductor material). The editor has composed five separate, thematic volumes on thin films of metals, semimetals, glasses, ceramics, alloys, organics, diamonds, graphites, porous materials, noncrystalline solids, supramolecules, polymers, copolymers, biopolymers, composites, blends, activated carbons, intermetallics, chalcogenides, dyes, pigments, nanostructured materials, biomaterials, inorganic/polymer composites, organoceramics, metallocenes, disordered systems, liquid crystals, quasicrystals, and layered structures. Thin films is a field of the utmost importance in today's materials science, electrical engineering and applied solid state physics; with both research and industrial applications in microelectronics, computer manufacturing, and physical devices. Advanced, high-performance computers, high-definition TV, digital camcorders, sensitive broadband imaging systems, flat-panel displays, robotic systems, and medical electronics and diagnostics are but a few examples of miniaturized device technologies that depend the utilization of thin film materials. The Handbook of Thin Films Materials is a comprehensive reference focusing on processing techniques, characterization methods, and physical properties of these thin film materials.

About the Editor

xix

List of Contributors

xxi

Volume Listing

xxiii

Methods of Deposition of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon for Device Applications

Wilfried G. J. H. M. van Sark

Introduction

(6)

Historical Overview

(1)

Material Aspects of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon

(5)

Research and Industrial Equipment

(6)

General Aspects

(1)

Reactor Configurations

(1)

Scale-Up to Systems of Industrial Size

(1)

ASTER, a Research System

(3)

Physics and Chemistry of PECVD

(7)

General Introduction

(1)

Plasma Physics

(3)

Plasma Chemistry

(3)

Plasma Modeling

(18)

1D Fluid Discharge Model

(9)

2D Fluid Discharge Model

(3)

Particle-in-Cell Discharge Models

(6)

Plasma Analysis

(14)

Optical Emission

(1)

Electrostatic Probes

(2)

Mass Spectrometry

(9)

Ellipsometry

(2)

Relation between Plasma Parameters and Material Properties

(10)

External Parameters

(2)

Internal Parameters

(8)

Deposition Models

(4)

Surface Adsorption

(1)

Solubility of Hydrogen in Silicon

(1)

Elimination of Hydrogen from a-Si:H

(2)

Dangling-Bond and Weak-Bond Density

(1)

Modifications of PECVD

(9)

VHF

(5)

Chemical Annealing

(1)

RF Modulation

(2)

Hot Wire Chemical Vapor Deposition

(3)

General Description

(1)

Experimental Setup

(1)

Material Properties and Deposition Conditions

(1)

Deposition Model

(1)

Expanding Thermal Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition

(3)

General Description

(1)

Experimental Setup

(1)

Material Properties and Deposition Conditions

(1)

Deposition Model

(1)

Applications

(9)

Solar Cells

(4)

Thin Film Transistors

(1)

Light Sensors

(1)

Chemical Sensors

(1)

Other Applications

(2)

Conclusion

(12)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(11)

Atomic Layer Deposition

Mikko Ritala

Markku Leskela

Introduction

103

(1)

Alternative Names

104

(1)

Basic Features of ALD

104

(4)

ALD Cycle

104

(2)

Benefits of ALD

106

(2)

Limitations of ALD

108

(1)

ALD Reactors

108

(5)

Overview

108

(1)

Flow-Type ALD Reactors with Inert Gas Valving

109

(3)

Flow-Type ALD Reactors with Moving Substrates

112

(1)

ALD Precursors

113

(12)

Requirements for ALD Precursors

113

(8)

Choice of Precursors

121

(1)

Overview of Precursors and Their Combinations Used in ALD

121

(4)

Film Materials and Applications

125

(13)

Electroluminescent Display Phosphors

126

(2)

Insulators

128

(5)

Transparent Conductors

133

(1)

Passivating and Protecting Layers

134

(1)

Transition Metal Nitride Diffusion Barriers

135

(2)

Metals

137

(1)

Solar Cell Absorbers

138

(1)

Optical Coatings

138

(1)

Characterization of ALD Processes

138

(14)

Film Growth Experiments

139

(5)

Reaction Mechanism Studies

144

(8)

Summary

152

(10)

References

153

(9)

Laser Applications in Transparent Conducting Oxide Thin Films Processing

Frederick Ojo Adurodija

Introduction

162

(1)

History of Transparent Conducting Films and Applications

162

(1)

Indium Tin Oxide Thin Films

162

(1)

Deposition Techniques

162

(1)

General Remarks

162

(1)

General Electrical Properties of TCO Films

163

(1)

Conduction Mechanism

163

(1)

Defect Models

164

(1)

Excimer Lasers

164

(3)

Principles of Excimer Lasers

165

(1)

Principles of Excimer PLD

166

(1)

Major Applications of Excimer Lasers

166

(1)

Advantages and Disadvantages of PLD

166

(1)

PLD Deposition Technique

167

(8)

ITO Target Ablation and Modification

167

(1)

Background Gas

168

(2)

Growth Rate and Film Thickness

170

(1)

Target to Substrate Distance

170

(1)

Optimization of Deposition Conditions (Background Gas)

171

(1)

Initial Growth of ITO Films

172

(2)

Film Deposition and Characterization

174

(1)

Properties of PLD Indium Oxide Films

175

(2)

Electrical Properties

175

(2)

Optical Properties

177

(1)

Structural Properties

177

(1)

Properties of PLD ITO Films

177

(16)

Structural and Other Properties

177

(7)

Electrical Properties of ITO Films

184

(4)

Optical Properties

188

(3)

Chemical States Analysis of ITO Films

191

(2)

Laser Irradiation

193

(15)

Excimer Laser Irradiation of Thin Films

193

(2)

Laser Irradiation of ITO Films

195

(1)

Film Preparation by Laser Irradiation

196

(1)

Effect of Sn-Doping on the Electrical Properties of Laser-Irradiated ITO Films

196

(4)

Effects of Oxygen Pressure on the Properties of Laser-Irradiated ITO Films

200

(5)

Effect of Substrate Temperature on the Properties of Laser-Irradiated ITO Films

205

(3)

Other TCO Materials---Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Thin Films

208

(4)

Applications of PLD ITO Films

212

(1)

Conclusion

213

(6)

References

213

(6)

Cold Plasma Processes in Surface Science and Technology

Pierangelo Groning

Introduction

219

(7)

Plasma the Fourth State of Matter

219

(2)

Cold Plasma

221

(5)

Applications

226

(31)

Carbon Thin Films

226

(10)

Plasma Polymerization

236

(4)

Surface Treatments

240

(13)

Surface Termination by H2 Plasma Treatment

253

(4)

Outlook

257

(5)

Acknowledgments

257

(1)

References

257

(5)

Electrochemical Formation of Thin Films of Binary III--V Compounds

L. Peraldo Bicelli

V. M. Kozlov

Introduction

262

(1)

Group III--V Compounds

263

(3)

Electrodeposition

266

(1)

Codeposition: Basic Considerations

266

(5)

Thermodynamic Aspects

266

(4)

Kinetic Aspects

270

(1)

Codeposition from Aqueous Solutions

271

(4)

Pourbaix's Equilibrium Diagrams

271

(2)

Parasitic Reactions

273

(1)

Classification of Cathodic Codeposition Processes

274

(1)

Codeposition from Molten Salts

275

(1)

Sequential Electrodeposition

276

(1)

Electrodeposition of Group III--V Compounds

277

(27)

Aluminium Compounds

278

(1)

Gallium Phosphide

279

(1)

Indium Phosphide

280

(3)

Gallium Arsenide

283

(10)

Indium Arsenide

293

(4)

Gallium Antimonide

297

(2)

Indium Antimonide

299

(4)

Indium--Bismuth Compounds

303

(1)

Diffusion Process and Formation of Group III--V Compounds

304

(6)

The Indium--Bismuth System

304

(4)

The Indium--Antimony System

308

(2)

Influence of the Substrate Structure and Morphology on the Diffusion Process

310

(5)

The Indium--Antimony System

310

(2)

The Gallium--Antimony System

312

(1)

Amorphous Antimony Crystallization

313

(2)

Conclusions

315

(4)

Acknowledgments

315

(1)

References

315

(4)

Fundamentals for the Formation and Structure Control of Thin Films: Nucleation, Growth, Solid-State Transformations

Hideya Kumomi

Frank G. Shi

Introduction

319

(2)

Structures and Properties

319

(1)

Structures and Formation Process

320

(1)

Nucleation, Growth, and Solid-State Transformations

320

(1)

Scope of This Chapter

320

(1)

Theory of Nucleation and Growth

321

(17)

Thermodynamics of Nucleation and Growth

321

(2)

Kinetics of Nucleation and Growth

323

(10)

Observables in Nucleation and Growth

333

(5)

Measurement of Nucleation and Growth

338

(14)

Dimensions

338

(4)

Ratios

342

(3)

Rates

345

(2)

Characteristic Time

347

(1)

Energy Barriers

347

(5)

Control of Nucleation and Growth

352

(23)

Grain Size

352

(9)

Size Distribution of Grains

361

(1)

Grain Locations

362

(7)

Acknowledgments

369

(1)

References

370

(5)

Ion Implant Doping and Isolation of GaN and Related Materials

S. J. Pearton

Introduction

375

(1)

Range Statistics

375

(1)

Donor Implants (Si, O, S, Se, and Te)

376

(4)

Acceptor Implants

380

(1)

Damage Removal

381

(4)

High Temperature Annealing

385

(8)

Surface Protection

385

(2)

Susceptors

387

(1)

AIN Encapsulant

388

(4)

NH3 Annealing

392

(1)

Diffusivity of Implanted Species

393

(3)

p--n Junction Formation

396

(1)

Isolation

397

(8)

Devices

405

(4)

Acknowledgment

406

(1)

References

406

(3)

Plasma Etching of GaN and Related Materials

S. J. Pearton

R. J. Shul

Introduction

409

(1)

Plasma Reactors

410

(3)

Reactive Ion Etching

410

(1)

High-Density Plasmas

410

(2)

Chemically Assisted Ion Beam Etching

412

(1)

Reactive Ion Beam Etching

412

(1)

Low-Energy Electron-Enhanced Etching

412

(1)

Plasma Chemistries

413

(11)

Cl2-Based

413

(5)

I2-and Br2-Based

418

(4)

CH4/H2/Ar

422

(2)

Etch Profile And Etched Surface Morphology

424

(1)

Plasma-Induced Damage

425

(16)

n-GaN

426

(4)

p-GaN

430

(4)

Schottky Diodes

434

(4)

p--n Junctions

438

(3)

Device Processing

441

(14)

Microdisk Lasers

441

(1)

Ridge Waveguide Lasers

441

(2)

Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors

443

(3)

Field Effect Transistors

446

(2)

UV Detectors

448

(2)

Acknowledgments

450

(1)

References

450

(5)

Residual Stresses in Physically Vapor-Deposited Thin Films

Yves Pauleau

Introduction

455

(2)

Microstructure and Morphology of PVD Thin Films

457

(13)

Nucleation and Growth Modes of PVD Thin Films

457

(1)

Effect of Energetic Particle Condensation and/or Bombardment on Nucleation and Early Stages of the Growth of Films

458

(1)

Structure-Zone Models

459

(3)

Major Physical Parameters Affecting the Microstructure of PVD Films

462

(8)

Magnitude of Residual Stresses in PVD Thin Films

470

(12)

Determination of Residual Stresses from the Radius of Curvature of Substrates

470

(4)

Determination of Residual Stresses Using X-Ray Diffraction Techniques

474

(3)

Magnitude of Residual Stresses in Multilayer Structures

477

(1)

Mechanical Stability of PVD Thin Films

478

(4)

Origin of Residual Stresses in PVD Thin Films

482

(10)

Thermal Stresses

482

(2)

Intrinsic Stresses

484

(6)

Extrinsic Stresses

490

(2)

Effect of Major Process Parameters on the Intrinsic Stress

492

(5)

Pressure Effect

493

(1)

Substrate Bias Voltage Effect

494

(1)

Substrate Temperature Effect

495

(2)

Data on Residual Stresses in PVD Thin Films

497

(22)

Residual Stresses in Silicon Dioxide Films Prepared by Thermal Evaporation

497

(8)

Residual Stresses in Silicon Dioxide Films Produced by Ion-Assisted Deposition

505

(2)

Residual Stresses in Silicon Oxynitride Films Produced by Dual Ion Beam Sputtering

507

(3)

Amorphous Carbon Films Deposited by Conventional Magnetron Sputtering on Grounded Substrates

510

(5)

Amorphous Carbon Films Deposited by Conventional and Unbalanced Magnetron Sputtering on Biased Substrates

515

(4)

Summary and Conclusion

519

(4)

References

520

(3)

Langmuir--Blodgett Films of Biological Molecules

Victor Erokhin

Introduction

523

(1)

Principles of the Langmuir--Blodgett Technique

524

(4)

Monolayers at the Air--Water Interface

524

(2)

Monolayer Transfer onto Solid Substrates

526

(2)

Techniques for Studying Monolayers and LB Films

528

(5)

Monolayers at the Air--Water Interface

528

(1)

LB Films on Solid Supports

529

(4)

Protein Films

533

(11)

Protein Monolayers at the Air--Water Interface

533

(5)

Monolayer Transfer

538

(1)

Protein Layers on Solid Substrates

538

(5)

Thermal Stability of Proteins in LB Films

543

(1)

Conclusions

544

(15)

Acknowledgment

545

(1)

References

545

(14)

Structure Formation During Electrocrystallization of Metal Films

V. M. Kozlov

L. Peraldo Bicelli

Introduction

559

(1)

Classification of the Structural Defects in Electrodeposits

560

(3)

Mechanism of Formation of Structural Defects during Noncoherent Nucleation

563

(3)

Classical Theory of Noncoherent Nucleation

566

(4)

Atomistic Analysis of Noncoherent Nucleation

570

(4)

Factors Influencing the Structure of Electrodeposits (Theoretical and Experimental Results)

574

(8)

Influence of the Crystallization Overvoltage on the Structure of Electrodeposits

574

(2)

Influence of the Foreign Particle Adsorption on the Structure of Electrodeposits

576

(4)

Influence of the Nature of Metals on the Formation of the Polycrystalline Structure of the Deposit during Electrocystallization

580

(2)

Mechanism of Multitwinning

582

(2)

Conclusions

584

(3)

Acknowledgment

585

(1)

References

585

(2)

Epitaxial Thin Films of Intermetallic Compounds

Michael Huth

Introduction

587

(1)

MBE Growth of Intermetallic Compounds

588

(20)

Intermetallic Compounds: Definition of Terms

588

(1)

Equipment

588

(5)

General Considerations in Compound Growth

593

(1)

Phase Stabilization and Orientation Selection

594

(7)

Epitaxial Strain

601

(3)

Morphological Aspects

604

(4)

Selected Applications in Basic and Applied Research

608

(15)

Superconductivity in UPd2Al3

608

(3)

Magnetoelastic Coupling Effects in RFe2

611

(4)

Magnetization Reversal of Ultrathin Co--Pt Heterostructures

615

(3)

Intermetallic Compounds for Magnetooptics

618

(1)

Exchange Anisotropy with Metallic Antiferromagnets

618

(1)

Antiferromagnetic Order Parameter Nucleation on a Thin Film Surface

619

(1)

Order--Disorder Phenomena

620

(3)

Outlook

623

(4)

Acknowledgments

623

(1)

References

624

(3)

Pulsed Laser Deposition of Thin Films: Expectations and Reality

Leonid R. Shaginyan

Introduction

627

(2)

Composition of Pulsed Laser-Deposited Films

629

(22)

Dependence of the Composition of PLD Films on Laser and Deposition Processing Parameters

630

(1)

Dependence of the Composition of PLD Films on the Evaporating Material

631

(3)

Experimental Details of Pilyankevich et al

634

(9)

Formation of PLD Film Composition

643

(7)

Conclusions

650

(1)

Structure of PLD Films

651

(8)

Factors Influencing the PLD Film Structure

651

(1)

Role of Molecules and Larger Clusters

651

(1)

Gas-Phase Clustering

652

(1)

Crystallization Temperature as an Index of Film Structure ``Perfection''

653

(2)

Influence of Laser Parameters and Substrate Temperature on Epitaxial Growth of PLD Films

655

(3)

Ways to Control the PLD Film Structure

658

(1)

Conclusions

659

(1)

Polymorphism in PLD Films

659

(2)

Polymorphism of PLD Carbon Films

659

(1)

Polymorphism of Boron Nitride Films

660

(1)

Polymorphism of Silicon Carbide Films

661

(1)

Conclusions

661

(1)

Macrodefects in PLD Films

661

(5)

Mechanisms of Splashing

661

(1)

Elimination of Particulates

662

(1)

Determination of Vapor Portion in Products of Laser-Ablated Metals

662

(4)

Conclusions

666

(1)

Influence of Target Properties on Some Features of PLD Compound Films

666

(4)

Role of Target Thermal Conductivity in Compound Film Property Formation

667

(1)

Powder Targets: Mechanisms of Particulate Generation

668

(2)

Conclusions

670

(1)

General Conclusions

670

(5)

Acknowledgments

671

(1)

References

671

(4)

Single-Crystal β''-Alumina Films

Chu Kun Kuo

Patrick S. Nicholson

Introduction

675

(2)

Review of the Literature on Large-Area Thin Films of β''/β-A12O3

677

(1)

Na-β''-A12O3 Single-Crystal Film Growth

677

(4)

Sapphire Substrate

678

(1)

Vaporization Source

679

(1)

Alkali Vapor--Sapphire Substrate Reactions

679

(2)

β''-A12O3 Film Growth Kinetics

681

(1)

Single-Crystal Film Characterization

681

(6)

X-Ray Diffraction

682

(1)

Microscopy

682

(2)

Structural Transformation from α- to β''-A12O3

684

(3)

Na-β''-A12O3-Coated, α-A12O3 Single-Crystal Platelets

687

(1)

The Growth of K-β'-A12O3 Single-Crystal Films

688

(1)

Ion Exchange Preparation of Other β''-A12O3 Isomorphs in Single-Crystal Film Form

689

(2)

Ion Exchange

689

(2)

The Optical Refractivity of β''-A12O3 Isomorphs

691

(1)

Luminescence Investigation of Cu+-Doped, Single-Crystal β''-A12O3 Films

691

(3)

Luminescence

691

(1)

Luminescence Patterning of Single-Crystal β''-A12O3 Films

692

(2)

Summary

694

(1)

Appendix

694

(5)

β''-and β-A12O3 Isomorphs

694

(1)

Optical Refractivity of β''-and β-A12O3

695

(2)

Luminescence of Activated β''(β)-A12O3

697

(1)

Acknowledgment

697

(1)

References

697

(2)

Index

699

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Handbook of Thin Films, Five-Volume Set

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials