Lords of the Scrolls : Literary Traditions in

Lords of the Scrolls analyzes ancient literary sources to show how biblical and gospel scribes borrowed and imitated themes from earlier literature to create heroic legends around Hebrew figures and Jesus. Comparisons between theEpic of Gilgames

Donald K. Sharpes is Adjunct Professor of Education at Arizona State University.

A Partial Chronology

xi

Preface

xiii

Acknowledgments

xvii

List of Abbreviations

xix

Introduction

1

(10)

PART I VINTAGE SCRIPTURES

The Narrative Tradition

11

(26)

The Magic of Writing

20

(3)

Myths as Origins of the Narrative Tradition

23

(8)

Lords of the Scrolls: Scribes of God

31

(6)

Words of God, Words of Men

37

(16)

The Biblical Tradition

37

(4)

The Septuagint and Vulgate

41

(1)

The Names of God in the Bible

42

(3)

Ethnocentrism: Fear of the Gentile

45

(8)

Middle Eastern Divinities and Prophets

53

(20)

Babylonian Deities

55

(2)

Canaanite Deities: Destiny, El and Baal

57

(4)

Selected Middle Eastern Divinities

61

(3)

Zoroaster (628 BCE-551 BCE)

64

(9)

Creation and Genesis

73

(20)

Enuma Elish: The Babylonian Creation Myth

75

(1)

Male and Female: The Birth of Humans

76

(3)

The Garden: Trees and Knowledge

79

(4)

The Serpent and the Maiden

83

(6)

Parallels between Gilgamesh and Genesis

89

(4)

Cain and Abel

93

(12)

Gilgamesh and Endiku

93

(1)

Osiris and Seth

94

(1)

Catal Huyuk

95

(6)

Farmers and Shepherds: The Allegorical Interpretation

101

(4)

The Flood

105

(16)

Noah and His Sons

107

(8)

Flood Stories

115

(2)

The Naming of Ancestors

117

(1)

The Tower of Babel

118

(3)

Abraham, First of the Patriarchs

121

(16)

Name Calling

122

(1)

Covenants and Sacrifice

123

(4)

Rebecca and Jacob

127

(2)

Sumerians and Semites

129

(2)

Sodom and Early Bronze Age Cities

131

(3)

Land and Foreskin

134

(3)

Esau, Jacob and Joseph

137

(18)

Isaac and the Blessing

139

(1)

Dream On: Jacob and Herodotus

140

(3)

Jacob's Return

143

(2)

Egypt: The Legacy of Civilization

145

(3)

Juda: An Interruption in Genesis

148

(1)

Joseph in Egypt

149

(2)

Conclusions to Genesis

151

(4)

Exodus and Egyptian Biblical Themes

155

(26)

Sinai

157

(2)

Law and Order: Hammurabi and Solon

159

(5)

Akhenaten, Founder of Monotheism

164

(3)

Moses

167

(5)

The Golden Calf

172

(9)

PART II: CHRISTIAN LITERARY ORIGINS

The Manufactured Jesus: Evidence and Mystery

181

(30)

Stoicism

182

(1)

Parallel Stoic and Gospel Sayings

183

(7)

The Essenes

190

(1)

Names and Designations

191

(4)

Birth, Ministry and Mission

195

(5)

The Halo Effect

200

(2)

Death and Resurrection

202

(9)

Greek Influence on Scripture

211

(26)

Pythagoras, Orpheus, & the Eleusian Mysteries

215

(4)

Ulysses and Jesus

219

(4)

Socrates and Plato

223

(2)

Epictetus (50--138 CE)

225

(1)

Philo of Alexandria (c.20 BCE--50 CE)

226

(4)

Justin Martyr (c. 100--165 CE)

230

(1)

Clement of Alexandria (c. 150--215 CE)

231

(3)

Plotinus (205--270 CE)

234

(3)

Cyrus, Mithras and Jesus

237

(10)

Parallels between Cyrus and Jesus

237

(2)

Mithras, The Bull-Slayer

239

(5)

Parallels between Mithras and Jesus

244

(3)

Gnosticism

247

(12)

Hindu Roots

254

(1)

Modern Gnostic Movements

255

(4)

Christianity and First Century Ideologies

259

(22)

Paul and the Invention of Christianity

261

(4)

The First Century: Political Turmoil

265

(8)

The Gospels: Origins and Themes

273

(8)

Christianity in the Second and Third Centuries

281

(22)

Acts of the Apostles

281

(3)

Irenaeus (c. 140-200 CE)

284

(1)

Literary Fragments from Canaan and Egypt

285

(3)

The 2nd Century CE: Celsus and Origen (c. 185--254 CE)

288

(3)

The 3rd Century: Constantine and Christianity

291

(8)

Mani and Manichaeism

299

(4)

Arius, Athanasius, and Augustine

303

(16)

Arius (c. 256--336 CE) and Arianism

304

(4)

Athanasius (297--373)

308

(4)

Augustine (354--430): The Christian Neo-Platonist

312

(7)

Epilogue

319

(8)

Endnotes

327

(36)

Glossary of Selected Terms

363

(2)

References

365

(20)

Index

385

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Lords of the Scrolls : Literary Traditions in the Bible and Gospels

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials