Mechanical Design In Organisms

This book deals with an interface between mechanical engineering and biology. It reviews biological structural materials and systems and their mechanically important features and demonstrates that function at any particular level of biological integration is permitted and controlled by structure at lower levels of integration.

S. A. Wainwright is Professor of Zoology at Duke University W. D. Biggs is Professor of Construction Management at the University of Reading, UK J. D. Currey is Professor of Biology at the University of York, UK J. M. Gosline is Professor of Zoology at the University of British Columbia

Preface

v

Acknowledgement

vi

List of symbols

xii

Introduction

1

(4)

PART I: MATERIALS

5

(236)

Principles of the strength of materials: Phenomenological description

6

(39)

Introduction

6

(1)

Stress and Strain

7

(1)

Linear Elasticity

8

(1)

The Elastic Moduli

9

(2)

Poisson's Ratio

11

(1)

Elastic Resilience-Stored Energy

12

(3)

Elastic Stress Concentrations

15

(3)

Fracture of Linearly Elastic Solids

18

(4)

Summary of Properties of Linearly Elastic Solids

22

(1)

Viscosity and Relaxation

23

(2)

Linear Viscoelasticity

25

(2)

Creep and Stress Relaxation

27

(2)

Effect of Temperature

29

(1)

The Glass Transition

30

(1)

Dynamic Behaviour

31

(2)

Viscoelastic Models

33

(3)

Retardation and Relaxation Spectra

36

(3)

Fracture of Viscoelastic Materials

39

(2)

Generalization of the Griffith Theory of Fracture

41

(2)

Summary of Properties of Viscoelastic Materials

43

(2)

Principles of the strength of materials: Molecular interpretation

45

(19)

Introduction

45

(1)

Thermodynamics of Mechanical Deformation

45

(2)

Linear Elasticity

47

(3)

The Structure of Polymers

50

(1)

Statistics of a Polymer Chain

51

(3)

Rubber Elasticity

54

(3)

Molecular Interpretations of Rubbery Polymers

57

(3)

Molecular Structure and the Master Curve

60

(4)

Tensile materials

64

(46)

Introduction to Crystalline Polymers

64

(9)

Factors Affecting Crystallinity in Polymers

64

(3)

The Structure of Polymer Crystals

67

(4)

Mechanical Properties of Crystalline Polymers

71

(2)

Silk

73

(8)

The Structure of Parallel-β Silks

73

(4)

The Mechanical Properties of Silks

77

(3)

Other Types of Silk

80

(1)

Collagen

81

(13)

The Structure of Collagen

82

(6)

Mechanical Properties of Collagen Fibres

88

(6)

Cellulose

94

(10)

The Structure of Cellulose

95

(4)

Mechanical Properties of Cellulose Fibres

99

(5)

Chitin

104

(6)

The Structure of Chitin

105

(2)

Mechanical Properties of Chitin Fibres

107

(3)

Pliant materials

110

(34)

Introduction

110

(1)

The Protein Rubbers

110

(9)

Resilin

111

(3)

Abductin

114

(2)

Elastin

116

(3)

The Mucopolysaccharides

119

(4)

Pliant Composites

123

(4)

Fibre Patterns in Pliant Composites

124

(2)

The Role of the Amorphous Phase

126

(1)

Mesoglea

127

(3)

Uterine Cervix

130

(2)

Skin

132

(2)

Arterial Wall

134

(4)

Cartilage

138

(3)

Mechanical Properties of Cartilage

141

(3)

Rigid materials

144

(97)

Introduction

144

(1)

Limiting Behaviour of Composite Materials

144

(3)

Elastic Fibres in a Matrix

147

(2)

Discontinuous Fibres

149

(1)

Effect of Fibre Orientation

150

(3)

Compression of Composite Materials

153

(1)

Fracture of Composite Materials

154

(3)

Voids

157

(2)

Structure of Arthropod Cuticle

159

(5)

Mechanical Properties of Arthropod Cuticle

164

(5)

Structure of Bone

169

(5)

Mechanical Properties of Bone

174

(13)

Main Features of Behaviour in Relation to Structure

175

(5)

Anisotropic Behaviour of Bone

180

(1)

Stress Concentrations in Bone

181

(2)

The Effect of Mineralization on Bone

183

(1)

Fatigue in Bone

184

(1)

Adaptive Growth and Reconstruction in Bone

185

(2)

Keratin

187

(4)

Gorgonin and Antipathin

191

(3)

Structure of the Plant Cell Wall

194

(4)

Cell Wall Structure in Nitella

196

(1)

The Tracheid

196

(2)

Mechanical Properties of Cell Walls

198

(4)

Structure of Wood

202

(1)

Mechanical Properties of Wood

203

(4)

Stony Materials

207

(17)

Porifera

207

(3)

Cnidaria

210

(1)

Mollusca

211

(3)

Brachiopoda

214

(2)

Arthropoda

216

(1)

Echinodermata

216

(2)

Birds' Eggshells

218

(1)

Spicules: Mechanical Considerations

219

(2)

Teeth

221

(3)

Mechanical Properties of Stony Materials

224

(10)

Grain Size

225

(2)

Porosity

227

(2)

The Function of the Organic Matrix

229

(4)

Stony Skeletons with Many Holes

233

(1)

Rigid Skeletal Materials: some Final Remarks

234

(7)

PART II: STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND SYSTEMS

241

(104)

Elements of structural systems

243

(44)

Introduction

243

(1)

Bending

244

(5)

Compression and Buckling

249

(4)

Torsion

253

(1)

Cross-Sectional Shape

254

(7)

Shells

261

(3)

Materials for Minimum Weight

264

(4)

Principles of Structural Optimization

268

(1)

The Failure of Elements (and Shells)

269

(6)

Joints

275

(5)

Degrees of Freedom

275

(2)

Forces and Directions

277

(1)

Flexible Joints

278

(1)

Sliding Joints

279

(1)

Adaptation of Shape

280

(3)

Adaptation of Material

283

(4)

Support in organisms

287

(58)

Introduction to Rigid and Flexible Systems

287

(10)

The Optimization of Space Frames

289

(4)

Fibre-wound Cylinders as Reinforced Membrane Systems

293

(4)

Design Principles for Biological Structural Systems

297

(2)

Real Organisms: An Overview

299

(3)

Symmetry

299

(1)

Reaction to Force

299

(3)

Fluid Support Systems in Plants and Animals

302

(4)

High-Pressure Worms

302

(2)

Low-Pressure Worms

304

(2)

Open, Extensible Cylinders: Sea Anemones

306

(12)

Hydra and Other Polyps

308

(2)

Medusae

310

(3)

Tube Feet

313

(3)

Metamerism

316

(2)

On Being Surrounded by Air

318

(7)

Wilting Plants

318

(2)

Woody Plants

320

(1)

Reaction Wood

321

(3)

Fibre-reinforced Palm Trees

324

(1)

The Hydrostatic Onychophora

325

(2)

Jointed Frameworks of Solid Materials

327

(6)

Running and Burrowing Myriapods

327

(5)

Insects

332

(1)

Complex Support Systems: Molluscs and Echinoderms

333

(1)

Squid Locomotion

334

(3)

Backbones

337

(2)

Stressed Tissues

339

(1)

Safety Factors

340

(5)

PART III: ECOMECHANICS

345

(24)

Ecological mechanics

347

(22)

Introduction

347

(1)

The Stressful Environment

348

(17)

Adaptations to Gravity (Mass)

348

(1)

Adaptations to Velocity of Flow (Strength and Rigidity)

349

(1)

Rigid Stony Corals

349

(1)

Compliant and Tensile Grasses, Seaweeds and Spider Webs

349

(6)

Drag Control in Air: Trees

355

(1)

Drag Control in Water: Passive Suspension Feeders

355

(3)

Adaptations to Direction of Flow (Anisotropy)

358

(6)

Adaptations to Duration and Frequency of Flow (Stress Rate and Fatigue)

364

(1)

Meiofauna and the Stormy Interstices

364

(1)

Active Suspension Feeders

365

(1)

The Informative Environment

365

(2)

Chemical Information

365

(1)

Thermal Information

365

(2)

Rheological Information

367

(1)

The Next Few Years

367

(2)

References-Author Index

369

(26)

Subject Index

395

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Mechanical Design In Organisms

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials