Microbiological Examination of Water and Wastewater

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ISBN: 9781566701792 | 1566701791
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 3/26/1999

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Microbiological tests have proven to be an indispensable part of environmental contaminant detection. It has also been tremendously difficult to find a comprehensive training manual and laboratory manual for those procedures. Microbiological Examination of Water and Wastewater now provides that much-needed resource for laboratory trainees and environmental professionals alike. An all-inclusive guide to applications and techniques of microbiological testing, Microbiological Examination of Water and Wastewater includes coverage of General Microbiology, Environmental Microbiology, Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, plus Techniques and Methods in Routine Environmental Microbiology Laboratory. By exploring the fundamentals of microbiology, as well as microbial metabolism, growth, control, and classification, trainees will better understand the purpose and manner of microbiological examination. Those details also make Microbiological Examination of Water and Wastewater ideal as a standard guidebook for laboratories, water and wastewater treatment plants, and the communities they serve.

Chapter 1 Scope and History of Microbiology

(14)

1.1 Microbes and Microbiology

(1)

1.1.1 General Concepts of Microbiology

(1)

1.1.2 Size of Microorganisms

(1)

1.1.3 Unicellular and Noncellular Organisms

(1)

1.1.4 Basic Characteristics of Living Systems

(1)

1.1.5 Investigation of Microorganisms

(1)

1.2 Brief History of Microbiology

(3)

1.2.1 The Microscope and Microbes

(1)

1.2.2 Spontaneous Generation vs. Biogenesis Theory

(3)

1.2.3 Aseptic Techniques

(1)

1.3 The Golden Age of Microbiology

(3)

1.3.1 Fermentation and Pasteurization

(1)

1.3.2 The Germ Theory of Disease

(1)

1.3.3 Vaccination

(1)

1.4 Chemotherapy

(2)

1.4.1 The First Synthetic Drugs

(1)

1.4.2 Antibiotics

(1)

1.5 Modern Developments in Microbiology

(1)

1.6 Naming and Classifying of Microorganisms

(1)

1.6.1 Naming of Microorganisms

(1)

1.7 The Diversity of Microorganisms

(4)

1.7.1 Bacteria

(1)

1.7.2 Fungi

(1)

1.7.3 Protozoa

(1)

1.7.4 Algae

(1)

1.7.5 Viruses

(1)

1.7.6 Multicellular Parasites

(3)

Chapter 2 Procaryotic Cells

(14)

2.1 Introduction of Procaryotic and Eucaryotic Cells

(1)

2.2 The Procaryotic Cell

(3)

2.2.1 Morphology of the Bacterial Cell

(1)

2.2.1.1 Spiral Bacteria

(1)

2.2.1.2 Bacilli

(1)

2.2.1.3 Cocci

(1)

2.3 Structures External to the Cell Walls

(1)

2.3.1 Glycocalyx

(1)

2.3.2 Flagella

(1)

2.3.3 Pili

(1)

2.4 The Cell Wall

(2)

2.4.1 Gram Positive Bacteria

(1)

2.4.2 Gram Negative Bacteria

(1)

2.4.3 Atypical Cell Wall

(1)

2.4.4 Damage to the Cell Wall

(1)

2.5 Structures Internal to the Cell Wall

(8)

2.5.1 Plasma or Inner Membrane

(1)

2.5.2 Movement of Material Across Membranes

(1)

2.5.2.1 Diffusion

(1)

2.5.2.2 Transport by Carriers

(1)

2.5.2.3 Endocytosis and Exocytosis

(1)

2.5.3 Cytoplasm

(1)

2.5.4 Nuclear Area

(1)

2.5.5 Ribosomes

(1)

2.5.6 Inclusion

(1)

2.5.6.1 Metachromatic Granules

(1)

2.5.6.2 Polysaccharide Granules

(1)

2.5.6.3 Lipid Inclusions

(1)

2.5.6.4 Sulfur Granules

(1)

2.5.6.5 Gas Vacuoles

(1)

2.5.7 Endospores

(1)

2.5.7.1 Sporulation

(1)

2.5.7.2 Germination

(3)

Chapter 3 Microbial Metabolism

(16)

3.1 Meaning of Metabolism

(1)

3.1.1 The First and Second Law of Thermodynamics

(1)

3.1.1.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics

(1)

3.1.1.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

(1)

3.1.2 Energy Transport through ADP and ATP

(1)

3.2 Metabolic Pathways

(1)

3.3 Enzymes

(3)

3.3.1 Mechanism of Enzyme Action

(1)

3.3.2 Naming the Enzymes

(1)

3.3.3 Temperature and pH Effect on Enzymes

(1)

3.3.4 Inhibition of Enzymes

(1)

3.3.4.1 Competitive Inhibition of Enzymes

(1)

3.3.4.2 Noncompetitive Inhibition of Enzymes

(1)

3.4 Nutritional Classification of Organisms

(1)

3.4.1 Energy Production

(1)

3.4.1.1 Carbon and Energy Sources

(1)

3.4.1.2 Nitrogen Sources

(1)

3.4.1.3 Other Chemical Requirements

(1)

3.5 Energy Production of Organisms

(2)

3.5.1 Oxidation-Reduction

(1)

3.5.2 Phosphorylation as ATP Formation in a Biological System

(1)

3.5.2.1 Substrate Level Phosphorylation

(1)

3.5.2.2 Oxidative Phosphorylation

(1)

3.5.2.3 Photophosphorylation

(1)

3.5.3 Formation of ATP during Respiration

(1)

3.5.3.1 Aerobic Respiration

(1)

3.5.3.2 Anaerobic Respiration

(1)

3.5.3.3 Fermentation

(1)

3.5.4 Formation of ATP during Fermentation

(1)

3.6 Carbohydrate Catabolism

(8)

3.6.1 Glycolysis

(1)

3.6.2 Alternative Pathway of Glycolysis by Bacteria

(1)

3.6.3 Transition Reaction

(1)

3.6.4 Krebs Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle

(2)

3.6.5 Respiratory Chain or Electron Transport System or Cytochrome System

(1)

3.6.6 Aerobic Respiration

(1)

3.6.7 Fermentation

(2)

Chapter 4 Microbial Growth and Its Control

(12)

4.1 Microbial Growth

(1)

4.1.1 The Lag Phase

(1)

4.1.2 The Log Phase

(1)

4.1.3 The Stationary Phase

(1)

4.1.4 The Death Phase

(1)

4.2 Physical Requirements

(2)

4.2.1 Temperature

(1)

4.2.1.1 Cold Loving Microbes: Psychrophiles

(1)

4.2.1.2 Moderate Temperature Loving Microbes: Mesophiles

(1)

4.2.1.3 Heat Loving Microbes: Thermophiles

(1)

4.2.2 pH and Buffers

(1)

4.2.3 Osmotic Pressure

(1)

4.3 Chemical Requirements

(2)

4.3.1 Carbon

(1)

4.3.2 Nitrogen, Sulfur, and Phosphorus

(1)

4.3.3 Trace Elements

(1)

4.3.4 Oxygen

(1)

4.3.5 Organic Growth Factors

(1)

4.4 Control of Microbial Growth

(2)

4.4.1 Terms Related to Destruction of Organisms

(1)

4.4.1.1 Sterilization

(1)

4.4.1.2 Disinfection

(1)

4.4.1.3 Pasteurization

(1)

4.4.1.4 Germicide

(1)

4.4.1.5 Antiseptics

(1)

4.4.1.6 Asepsis

(1)

4.4.1.7 Degerming

(1)

4.4.1.8 Sanitization

(1)

4.5 Physical Methods of Microbial Control

(1)

4.5.1 High Heat

(1)

4.5.1.1 Moist Heat Sterilization

(1)

4.5.1.2 Dry Heat Sterilization

(1)

4.5.2 Filtration

(1)

4.5.3 Low Temperature

(1)

4.5.4 Desiccation

(1)

4.5.5 Radiation

(1)

4.5.5.1 Ionizing Radiation

(1)

4.5.5.2 Nonionizing Radiation

(1)

4.6 Chemical Methods of Microbial Control

(4)

4.6.1 Surfactants or Surface Acting Agents

(1)

4.6.1.1 Soap

(1)

4.6.1.2 Acid-Anionic Surface Acting Sterilizers

(1)

4.6.1.3 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Quats)

(1)

4.6.2 Organic Acids

(1)

4.6.3 Aldehydes

(1)

4.6.4 Ethylene Oxide

(1)

4.6.5 Oxidizing Agents

(1)

4.6.6 Phenol (Carbolic Acid)

(1)

4.6.7 Halogens

(1)

4.6.8 Alcohols

(1)

4.6.9 Heavy Metals

(2)

Chapter 5 Microorganisms in the Environment

(22)

5.1 Biochemical Cycles

(6)

5.1.1 The Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle

(1)

5.1.2 The Carbon Cycle

(1)

5.1.2.1 The Greenhouse Effect

(1)

5.1.3 The Nitrogen Cycle

(1)

5.1.3.1 Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria

(1)

5.1.3.2 Nitrifying Bacteria

(1)

5.1.3.3 Denitrifying Bacteria

(1)

5.1.4 The Sulfur Cycle

(1)

5.1.4.1 Sulfate Reducing Bacteria

(1)

5.1.4.2 Sulfur Reducing Bacteria

(1)

5.1.4.3 Sulfur Oxidizing Bacteria

(1)

5.1.5 The Phosphorus Cycle

(1)

5.2 Microorganisms Found in Air

(3)

5.2.1 Sources of Indoor Pollution

(1)

5.2.1.1 Outdoor Environment

(1)

5.2.1.2 Indoor Contamination

(1)

5.2.2 Factors Affecting Indoor Microbial Levels

(1)

5.2.3 Controlling Microorganisms in Air

(1)

5.2.3.1 Chemical Agents

(1)

5.2.3.2 Ultraviolet Radiation

(1)

5.2.3.3 Air Filtration

(1)

5.3 Microorganisms in Soil

(4)

5.3.1 Components of Soil

(1)

5.3.1.1 Inorganic Components

(1)

5.3.1.2 Organic Matter

(1)

5.3.1.3 Root Systems

(1)

5.3.1.4 Living Organisms

(1)

5.3.2 Microorganisms in Soil

(1)

5.3.2.1 Bacteria

(1)

5.3.2.2 Actinomycetes

(1)

5.3.2.3 Fungi

(1)

5.3.2.4 Cyanobacteria, Algae, Protista and Viruses

(1)

5.3.3 Abiotic Factors Influence Microorganisms in the Soil

(1)

5.3.3.1 Water and Oxygen

(1)

5.3.3.2 Soil pH

(1)

5.3.3.3 Temperature

(1)

5.3.4 Importance of Decomposers in the Soil

(1)

5.3.5 Soil Pathogens

(1)

5.4 Aquatic Microbiology

(4)

5.4.1 Freshwater Environment

(1)

5.4.1.1 Ground Water

(1)

5.4.1.2 Surface Water

(1)

5.4.2 Factors Affecting Microorganisms in Aquatic Environments

(1)

5.4.2.1 Temperature

(1)

5.4.2.2 pH

(1)

5.4.2.3 Nutrients

(1)

5.4.2.4 Oxygen

(1)

5.4.2.5 Depth

(1)

5.4.3 Marine Environments

(1)

5.4.3.1 Temperature

(1)

5.4.3.2 pH

(1)

5.4.3.3 Salinity

(1)

5.4.3.4 Hydrostatic Pressure

(1)

5.4.3.5 Sunlight and Oxygen Concentration

(1)

5.4.3.6 Nutrient Concentrations

(1)

5.4.4 Water Pollution

(1)

5.4.4.1 Organic Wastes

(1)

5.4.4.2 Industrial Wastes

(1)

5.4.4.3 Synthetic Chemicals

(1)

5.4.4.4 Radioactive Substances

(1)

5.4.4.5 Agricultural, Mining, and Construction Activities

(1)

5.4.4.6 Heat

(1)

5.4.5 Pathogens in Water

(1)

5.5 Water Purification

(1)

5.5.1 Flocculation

(1)

5.5.2 Filtration

(1)

5.5.3 Chlorination

(1)

5.6 Sewage Treatment

(4)

5.6.1 Primary Treatment

(1)

5.6.2 Secondary Treatment

(1)

5.6.2.1 Trickling Filter Systems

(1)

5.6.2.2 Activated Sludge Systems

(1)

5.6.3 Tertiary Treatment

(1)

5.6.4 Septic Tanks

(2)

Chapter 6 Bioremediation of Organic Contaminants

(6)

6.1 Bioremediation

(1)

6.1.1 The Objective of Bioremediation

(1)

6.1.2 Advantage of Bioremediation

(1)

6.1.3 Disadvantage of Bioremediation

(1)

6.1.4 Development of Bioremediation

(1)

6.1.5 Biotransformation by Subsurface Microorganisms

(1)

6.2 Application of Bioremediation

(5)

6.2.1 Wood Preservative Industries

(1)

6.2.2 Soil and Hazardous Waste Bioremediation

(1)

6.2.2.1 Bioreactors

(1)

6.2.2.2 Solid Phase Bioremediation

(1)

6.2.2.3 Soil Heaping

(1)

6.2.2.4 Composting

(1)

6.2.3 Degradation of Synthetic Chemicals in Soil

(1)

6.2.4 Biological Control of Groundwater Pollution

(1)

6.2.5 Modern Microbiological Concepts and Pollution Control

(1)

Chapter 7 Microbiological Quality of Environmental Samples

(22)

7.1 Monitoring Microbiological Quality

(3)

7.1.1 Waterborne Disease Outbreaks

(1)

7.1.1.1 Swimming Associated Outbreaks

(1)

7.1.2 Recovery of Pathogens from Environmental Samples

(1)

7.1.3 Indicator Bacteria

(1)

7.1.3.1 Coliform Group

(1)

7.1.3.2 Fecal Coliform Bacteria

(1)

7.1.4 Standards on Microbiological Quality

(1)

7.2 Introduction to Microbiological Parameters to the Sanitary Quality of Environmental Samples

(1)

7.2.1 Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC)

(1)

7.2.2 Coliform Bacteria Group

(1)

7.2.2.1 Total Coliform Group

(1)

7.2.2.2 Fecal Coliform, Escherichia coli (E. coli)

(1)

7.2.2.3 Fecal streptococcus

(1)

7.2.3.4 Klebsiella

(1)

7.3 Pathogenic Microorganisms

(5)

7.3.1 Pathogenic Bacteria

(1)

7.3.1.1 Salmonella

(1)

7.3.1.2 Salmonella typhi

(1)

7.3.1.3 Shigella

(1)

7.3.1.4 Vibrio cholera

(1)

7.3.1.5 Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli

(1)

7.3.1.6 Yersinia

(1)

7.3.1.7 Campylobacter

(1)

7.3.1.8 Legionella pneumophila

(1)

7.3.1.9 Clostridium

(1)

7.3.2 Viruses

(1)

7.3.2.1 Hepatitis A Virus (HAV)

(1)

7.3.2.2 Norwalk Agent

(1)

7.3.3 Pathogenic Protozoa

(1)

7.3.3.1 Giardia lamblia

(1)

7.3.3.2 Entamoeba histolytica

(1)

7.4 Iron and Sulfur Bacteria

(2)

7.5 Actinomycetes

(1)

7.6 Fungi

(1)

7.6.1 Aspergillus

(1)

7.6.2 Candida albicans

(1)

7.7 Regulations for Drinking Water Quality

(4)

7.7.1 Monitoring Agencies

(1)

7.7.1.1 World Health Organization (WHO)

(1)

7.7.1.2 European Economic Community (EEC)

(1)

7.7.1.3 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

(1)

7.7.2 Monitoring Requirements

(1)

7.7.3 Minimum Coliform Monitoring Requirements

(1)

7.7.4 Standards

(1)

7.7.5 Disinfection Requirements for All Public Water Supplies

(1)

7.7.6 Disinfection By-Product Regulations

100

(1)

7.8 Groundwater

100

(1)

7.8.1 Classification of Groudwater

100

(1)

7.8.2 Groundwater Standards

101

(1)

7.9 Surface Waters

101

(2)

7.9.1 Surface Water Classification

101

(1)

7.9.2 Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR)

102

(1)

7.9.3 Surface Water Quality Standards

103

(1)

7.10 Wastewater

103

(2)

7.10.1 Industrial Wastewater

103

(1)

7.10.2 Permit for Industrial and Domestic Wastewater Effluents

104

(1)

7.10.3 Minimum Treatment Standard of Domestic Wastewater Effluents

104

(1)

7.10.3.1 Effluents for Direct Surface Water Disposal or Surface Water Disposal via Ocean Outfall

104

(1)

7.10.3.2 Discharging to Open Ocean Water

104

(1)

7.10.3.3 Effluent Disinfection

104

(1)

7.10.3.3.1 Basic Disinfection

104

(1)

7.10.3.3.2 High-Level Disinfection

105

(1)

7.10.3.3.3 Intermediate Disinfection

105

(1)

7.10.3.3.4 Low-Level Disinfection

105

(1)

7.11 Soil and Sediment

105

(1)

7.12 Air

106

(1)

Chapter 8 Safety in Environmental Microbiology Laboratory

107

(10)

8.1 Laboratory Facilities

107

(1)

8.2 Laboratory Safety Considerations

108

(3)

8.2.1 General Laboratory Safety Rules

108

(1)

8.2.2 Standard Safety Practices in a Microbiological Laboratory

109

(2)

8.2.3 General Handling and Storage of Chemicals and Gases

111

(1)

8.2.4 Electrical Precautions

111

(1)

8.3 Summarized Safety Check List for Environmental Microbiology Laboratories

111

(6)

8.3.1 Administrative Considerations

111

(3)

8.3.2 Personal Conduct

114

(1)

8.3.3 Laboratory Equipment

114

(1)

8.3.4 Disinfection/Sterilization

115

(1)

8.3.5 Biohazard Control

115

(1)

8.3.6 Handling and Storage of Chemicals and Gases

115

(1)

8.3.7 Emergency Precautions

115

(2)

Chapter 9 Laboratory Quality Assurance and Quality Control

117

(22)

9.1 Introduction

117

(1)

9.1.1 Quality Assurance (QA)

117

(1)

9.1.2 Quality Control (QC)

117

(1)

9.1.3 Quality Assessment

117

(1)

9.2 Requirements for Facilities and Personnel

117

(2)

9.2.1 Ventilation

117

(1)

9.2.2 Laboratory Bench Areas

117

(1)

9.2.3 Walls and Floors

118

(1)

9.2.4 Laboratory Cleanliness

118

(1)

9.2.5 Air Monitoring

118

(1)

9.2.5.1 RODAC Plates

118

(1)

9.2.5.2 Air Density Plates

118

(1)

9.2.6 Personnel

119

(1)

9.3 Quality Control for Laboratory Equipment and Instrumentation

119

(8)

9.3.1 Thermometers and Temperature-Recording Instruments

119

(1)

9.3.2 Balances

119

(1)

9.3.3 pH Meter

120

(1)

9.3.4 Water Deionization Unit

120

(1)

9.3.5 UV Sterilizer

121

(2)

9.3.6 Membrane Filter Apparatus

123

(1)

9.3.7 Centrifuge

123

(2)

9.3.8 Hot-Air Oven

125

(1)

9.3.9 Autoclave

125

(1)

9.3.10 Refrigerators and Freezers

126

(1)

9.3.11 Incubators

126

(1)

9.3.12 Water Bath

126

(1)

9.3.13 Safety Hood

126

(1)

9.3.14 Microscope

127

(1)

9.3.15 Spectrophotometer

127

(1)

9.4 Quality Control of Laboratory Supplies

127

(3)

9.4.1 Glassware

127

(1)

9.4.2 Glass, Plastic, and Metal Utensils for Media Preparation

128

(1)

9.4.3 Culture Dishes

128

(1)

9.4.4 Sterility Check on Glassware

128

(1)

9.4.5 Chemicals and Reagents

128

(1)

9.4.6 Dyes and Stains

129

(1)

9.4.7 Membrane Filters and Pads

129

(1)

9.4.8 Culture Media

129

(1)

9.4.8.1 Quality Control Criteria for Prepared Media

130

(1)

9.5 Quality Control of Laboratory Pure Water

130

(3)

9.5.1 Checks and Monitoring Criteria

130

(1)

9.5.2 Test for Bacterial Quality

130

(1)

9.5.2.1 Reagents

131

(1)

9.5.2.2 Sample Preparation

132

(1)

9.5.2.3 Preparation of Bacterial Suspension

132

(1)

9.5.2.4 Test

132

(1)

9.5.2.5 Calculation

132

(1)

9.5.2.6 Interpretation of the Results

133

(1)

9.6 Analytical Quality Control Procedures

133

(3)

9.6.1 Quality Control in Routine Analysis

133

(1)

9.6.1.1 Negative (Sterile) Control

133

(1)

9.6.1.2 Positive Control

134

(1)

9.6.1.3 Duplicate Analysis

134

(1)

9.6.2 Measurement of Method Precision

134

(1)

9.6.3 Reference Sample

134

(1)

9.6.4 Performance Sample

134

(1)

9.6.5 Membrane Filter Method (MF) Verification

135

(1)

9.6.5.1 Total Coliform

135

(1)

9.6.5.2 Fecal Coliforms

136

(1)

9.6.5.3 Fecal Streptococci

136

(1)

9.7 Records and Data Reporting

136

(1)

9.8 Interlaboratory Quality Control

136

(3)

Chapter 10 Collecting and Handling Environmental Samples for Microbiological Examination

139

(14)

10.1 Sampling

139

(2)

10.1.1 Sampling Program

139

(1)

10.1.2 Type of Samples

139

(1)

10.1.3 Sample Containers

139

(1)

10.1.4 Dechlorinating Agent

140

(1)

10.1.5 Chelating Agents

140

(1)

10.1.6 Sampling Procedures

140

(1)

10.2 Sample Collection from Different Sources

141

(7)

10.2.1 Collecting Potable Water Samples

141

(1)

10.2.1.1 Sampling from Distribution System

141

(1)

10.2.1.2 Sampling from Wells

142

(1)

10.2.2 Collect Samples from River, Stream, Lake, Spring, or Shallow Well

143

(1)

10.2.3 Sample Collection from Bathing Beaches

143

(3)

10.2.4 Marine and Estuarine Sampling

146

(1)

10.2.5 Sample Collection from Domestic and Industrial Discharges

146

(1)

10.2.6 Collecting Samples from Sediments and Sludges

146

(1)

10.2.6.1 Bottom Sediments

146

(1)

10.2.6.2 Sludges

147

(1)

10.2.7 Soil Sampling

147

(1)

10.3 Sample Identification

148

(1)

10.4 Sample Transportation, Preservation and Holding Time

149

(4)

10.4.1 Sample Transportation and Preservation

149

(1)

10.4.2 Laboratory Custody Procedure

150

(1)

10.4.3 Holding Time

150

(1)

10.4.4 Discard Samples

151

(2)

Chapter 11 Laboratory Equipment and Supplies in the Environmental Microbiology Laboratory

153

(18)

11.1 Laboratory Equipment

153

(9)

11.1.1 Incubators

153

(1)

11.1.2 Hot-Air Sterilizing Oven

153

(1)

11.1.3 Autoclaves

153

(1)

11.1.4 pH Meter

154

(1)

11.1.5 Balances

155

(1)

11.1.6 Optical Counting Equipment

155

(1)

11.1.7 Refrigerator

156

(1)

11.1.8 Membrane Filtration Equipment

156

(1)

11.1.9 Line Vacuum or Electric Vacuum Pump

157

(1)

11.1.10 Inoculating Needles or Loops

157

(1)

11.1.11 Microscope

157

(1)

11.1.11.1 Parts of the Microscope

157

(1)

11.1.11.2 Light Microscope

158

(2)

11.1.11.3 Focusing the Microscope

160

(1)

11.1.11.3.1 Low Power (4X or 10X)

160

(1)

11.1.11.3.2 Higher Power

160

(1)

11.1.11.4 Rules for Using Microscopes

161

(1)

11.1.11.5 Dark Field Microscopy

161

(1)

11.1.11.6 Phase-Contrast Microscopy

161

(1)

11.1.11.7 Fluorescent Microscopy

162

(1)

11.1.11.8 Electron Microscopy

162

(1)

11.2 Laboratory Glassware

162

(7)

11.2.1 Petri Dishes

162

(1)

11.2.1.1 Petri Dishes with Tight Fitting Lids

162

(1)

11.2.1.2 Petri Dishes with Loose Fitting Lids

162

(1)

11.2.2 Pipets

162

(4)

11.2.3 Graduated Cylinders

166

(1)

11.2.4 Vacuum Filter Flask

166

(1)

11.2.5 Safety Trap Flask

167

(1)

11.2.6 Dilution (Milk Dilution) Bottles

167

(1)

11.2.7 Fermentation Tubes and Vials

168

(1)

11.2.8 Thermometers

168

(1)

11.2.9 Cleaning Laboratory Glassware

169

(1)

11.2.10 Glassware Sterilization

169

(1)

11.3 Chemicals and Reagents

169

(2)

11.3.1 Chemicals and Reagents

169

(1)

11.3.2 Laboratory Pure Water

169

(2)

Chapter 12 Culture Media

171

(12)

12.1 Culture Media and Culture

171

(5)

12.1.1 Chemically Defined Media

171

(1)

12.1.2 Complex Media

171

(1)

12.1.3 Selective and Differential Media

172

(1)

12.1.3.1 Selective Media

172

(1)

12.1.3.2 Differential Media

172

(1)

12.1.4 Storage of Dehydrated Culture Media

172

(1)

12.1.5 Preparation of Media

172

(1)

12.1.5.1 Preparation and Sterilization of Media

173

(1)

12.1.6 Sterilization of the Media

174

(1)

12.1.7 pH Check of the Media

175

(1)

12.1.8 Storage of Culture Media

175

(1)

12.1.9 Sterile Media from Commercial Sources

176

(1)

12.2 Bacterial Growth in Media

176

(7)

12.2.1 Bacterial Growth in Liquid (Broth) Media

176

(1)

12.2.1.1 Observing Growth Patterns on Broth Media

176

(2)

12.2.2 Bacterial Growth in Agar Slant Cultures

178

(1)

12.2.2.1 Preparation of Agar Slants

178

(1)

12.2.3 Bacterial Selection by Sugar Fermentation

178

(2)

12.2.4 Obtaining Pure Culture: Streak Plate Method

180

(1)

12.2.4.1 How to Prepare Agar Plates

181

(1)

12.2.4.2 How to Inoculate Agar Plates

182

(1)

12.2.4.3 How to Incubate Agar Plates

182

(1)

Chapter 13 Direct Measurement of Bacterial Growth

183

(10)

13.1 Dilutions

183

(2)

13.1.1 Single Dilution

183

(1)

13.1.2 Serial Dilution

183

(1)

13.1.3 Prompt Use of Dilutions

184

(1)

13.1.4 Dilution Water

184

(1)

13.1.4.1 Phosphate Buffered Dilution Water

184

(1)

13.1.4.1.1 Stock Phosphate Buffer Solution

184

(1)

13.1.4.1.2 Working Phosphate Buffer Solution

185

(1)

13.2 Plate Counts

185

(1)

13.2.1 Pour Plate Method

185

(1)

13.2.2 Spread Plate Method

186

(1)

13.2.3 Streak Plate Method

186

(1)

13.3 Membrane Filter (MF) Technique

186

(2)

13.3.1 Advantage of the Membrane Filter Technique

187

(1)

13.3.2 Limitations of the Membrane Filter Technique

187

(1)

13.3.3 Outline of the Membrane Filter Technique

187

(1)

13.4 Most Probable Number (MPN) Method

188

(1)

13.4.1 Presumptive Test

188

(1)

13.4.2 Confirmed Test

188

(1)

13.4.3 Completed Test

188

(1)

13.4.4 Calculation and Reporting of MPN Values

189

(1)

13.5 Staining Procedures

189

(2)

13.5.1 Preparation of Bacterial Smears

189

(1)

13.5.2 Gram Stain

189

(2)

13.6 Direct Microscopic Counts

191

(2)

Chapter 14 Estimation of Bacterial Numbers by Indirect Methods

193

(8)

14.1 Turbidity

193

(1)

14.2 Biochemical Reactions and Enzymatic Tests

194

(6)

14.2.1 Catalase Test

194

(1)

14.2.2 Clumping Factor Test (Slide Coagulase Test)

194

(1)

14.2.3 Nitrate Reduction Test

195

(1)

14.2.4 Oxidase Test (Kovacs Method)

196

(1)

14.2.5 Indole Test

197

(1)

14.2.5.1 The Rapid Indole Test

197

(1)

14.2.5.2 Regular Indole Test

197

(1)

14.2.6 Rapid Urease Test

198

(1)

14.2.7 IMViC Tests

198

(1)

14.2.8 Methyl Red and Voges-Proskauer Test

198

(1)

14.2.8.1 Methyl Red (MR) Test

199

(1)

14.2.8.2 Voges-Proskauer (V-P) Reaction

199

(1)

14.2.9 Citrate Utilization Test

199

(1)

14.2.10 Decarboxylase Test

200

(1)

14.2.11 Motility Test

200

(1)

14.3 Rapid Identification Systems (Multitest Systems)

200

(1)

Chapter 15 Methods for Analyzing Microbiological Quality of the Environment

201

(8)

15.1 Methods and Techniques

201

(2)

15.1.1 Methods for the Total Coliform Group

201

(1)

15.1.2 Methods for Fecal Coliforms

201

(1)

15.1.3 Heterotrophic Plate Count

202

(1)

15.1.4 Method for Fecal Streptococcus

203

(1)

15.1.5 Detection of Stressed Organisms

203

(1)

15.1.5.1 Ambient Temperature Effect

203

(1)

15.1.5.2 Chlorinated Effluents and Toxic Wastes

203

(1)

15.2 Rapid Detection Methods

203

(1)

15.2.1 7 Hour Fecal Coliform Test

204

(1)

15.3 Methods for Microbiological Examination of Recreational Waters

204

(1)

15.3.1 Swimming Pools

204

(1)

15.3.1.1 Disinfected Indoor Pools

204

(1)

15.3.1.2 Disinfected Outdoor Pools

204

(1)

15.3.1.3 Untreated Pools

204

(1)

15.3.2 Whirlpools

205

(1)

15.3.3 Natural Bathing Beaches

205

(1)

15.4 Detection of Pathogenic Bacteria

205

(1)

15.5 Detection of Soil Microorganisms

206

(3)

15.5.1 Sample Collection

206

(1)

15.5.2 Sample Handling and Storage

206

(1)

15.5.3 Moisture Determination

206

(1)

15.5.4 Plate Count

207

(1)

15.5.5 Most Probable Number (MPN) Method

207

(2)

Chapter 16 Heterotrophic Plate Count

209

(10)

16.1 Introduction

209

(1)

16.2 Pour Plate Method

209

(6)

16.2.1 Equipment and Material

209

(1)

16.2.2 Media Preparation

210

(1)

16.2.3 Preparation of Agar

210

(1)

16.2.4 Dilution Preparation

210

(1)

16.2.5 Plate Preparation

211

(2)

16.2.6 Counting

213

(1)

16.2.6.1 Select Plates Having 30 to 300 Colonies

213

(1)

16.2.6.2 Plates Having More Than 300 Colonies

213

(1)

16.2.6.3 Plates Have No Colonies

214

(1)

16.2.6.4 Number of Colonies per Plate Greatly Exceeding 300

214

(1)

16.2.6.5 Spreading Colonies Are on the Plate(s)

214

(1)

16.2.6.6 Plates Are Uncountable

214

(1)

16.2.6.7 Examples for Counting and Reporting

214

(1)

16.3 Spread Plate Method

215

(1)

16.3.1 Equipment and Material

215

(1)

16.3.2 Media and Agar Preparation, Sample Dilution

215

(1)

16.3.3 Preparation of Agar Plates

215

(1)

16.3.4 Procedure

215

(1)

16.3.5 Counting and Reporting

216

(1)

16.4 Plate Count from Soils and Sediments

216

(3)

16.4.1 Moisture Determination

216

(1)

16.4.2 Preparation of Dilutions

216

(1)

16.4.3 Calculation and Reporting

217

(1)

16.4.4 Pour Plates

217

(1)

16.4.5 Spread Count

217

(2)

Chapter 17 Determination of Total Coliform

219

(18)

17.1 Membrane Filter Technique

219

(4)

17.1.1 Introduction

219

(1)

17.1.2 Application

219

(1)

17.1.3 Equipment and Glassware

220

(1)

17.1.4 Culture Media

221

(1)

17.1.4.1 Preparation of the M-Endo Broth Media

221

(1)

17.1.4.2 Preparation of the M-Endo Agar Medium

222

(1)

17.1.4.3 Preparation of Lauryl Tryptose Broth

222

(1)

17.1.4.4 Preparation of Brilliant Green Bile Broth

222

(1)

17.1.4.5 Preparation of Dilution Water

222

(1)

17.1.4.6 Preparation of Magnesium Chloride Solution

222

(1)

17.1.5 Set Up Filtration Apparatus

222

(1)

17.1.6 Suggested Sample Volumes for Membrane Filter Total Coliform

222

(1)

17.2 Membrane Filtration (MF) Procedure

223

(3)

17.2.1 Procedure Using Broth Media

223

(1)

17.2.2 Procedure Using Agar Media

223

(1)

17.2.3 Counting and Recording Colonies

223

(1)

17.2.3.1 General Rules for Counting and Reporting

224

(1)

17.2.3.2 Special Rules in Counting and Reporting for Potable Waters

225

(1)

17.2.4 Verification

225

(1)

17.2.4.1 Verification Procedures

225

(1)

17.3 Delayed Incubation by the MF Method

226

(1)

17.3.1 Application

227

(1)

17.3.2 Equipment and Glassware

227

(1)

17.3.3 Culture Media

227

(1)

17.3.3.1 Preparation of M-Endo Preservative Medium

227

(1)

17.3.4 Procedure, Counting, and Recording

227

(1)

17.4 Most Probable Number (MPN) Method

227

(6)

17.4.1 Introduction

227

(1)

17.4.2 Application

228

(1)

17.4.3 Equipment and Glassware

228

(1)

17.4.4 Culture Media

228

(1)

17.4.4.1 Lauryl Tryptose Broth

228

(1)

17.4.4.2 Brilliant Green Lactose Bile Broth (BGLB)

228

(1)

17.4.4.3 Eosine Methylene Blue Agar (EMB Agar)

228

(1)

17.4.5 Dilution Water

229

(1)

17.4.6 Procedure

230

(1)

17.4.6.1 Presumptive Test

230

(1)

17.4.6.2 Confirmed Test

230

(1)

17.4.6.3 Completion Test

230

(1)

17.4.7 Calculation

231

(1)

17.4.7.1 Calculation of Reported Value When 10, 1.0, and 0.1 ml Portions Are Used

231

(1)

17.4.7.2 Calculation of Reported Values When the Series of Decimal Dilutions Is Other Than 10, 1.0, and 0.1 ml

231

(1)

17.4.7.3 More Than Three Sample Volumes Are Inoculated

231

(2)

17.5 Determination of Klebsiella

233

(2)

17.5.1 Introduction

233

(1)

17.5.2 Membrane Filter Procedure

234

(1)

17.5.2.1 Apparatus

234

(1)

17.5.2.2 Culture Medium

234

(1)

17.5.2.2.1 Modified M-FC Agar (M-FCIC) Agar

234

(1)

17.5.2.2.2 M-Kleb Agar

234

(1)

17.5.2.3 Procedure

235

(1)

17.5.2.4 Counting Colonies

235

(1)

17.5.2.5 Verification

235

(1)

17.6 Application for Soil, Sediment, and Sludge Samples

235

(1)

17.7 Analytical Quality Control

236

(1)

Chapter 18 Determination of Fecal Coliform

237

(8)

18.1 Definition of the Fecal Coliform Group

237

(1)

18.2 Membrane Filter Method

237

(3)

18.2.1 Application

237

(1)

18.2.2 Equipment and Glassware

237

(1)

18.2.3 Culture Media

237

(1)

18.2.3.1 Preparation of M-FC Broth

238

(1)

18.2.3.1.1 Rosolic Acid Solution

238

(1)

18.2.3.1.2 0.2 N NaOH

238

(1)

18.2.3.2 Preparation of M-FC Agar

238

(1)

18.2.3.3 Preparation of Lauryl Tryptose Broth

238

(1)

18.2.3.4 Preparation of EC Medium

238

(1)

18.2.3.5 Preparation of Sterile Dilution Water

238

(1)

18.2.4 Procedure

238

(1)

18.2.4.1 Set Up Filtration Apparatus

238

(1)

18.2.4.2 Suggested Sample Volumes for the Membrane Filter Fecal Coliform Test

238

(1)

18.2.4.3 Procedure Using Broth Media

239

(1)

18.2.4.4 Procedure Using Agar Media

239

(1)

18.2.5 Counting and Recording Colonies

239

(1)

18.2.5.1 Countable Membranes with 20 to 60 Colonies

239

(1)

18.2.5.2 Countable Membrane Filters with Less Than 20 Blue Colonies

239

(1)

18.2.5.3 Membranes with No Colonies

239

(1)

18.2.5.4 Countable Membranes with More Than 60 Colonies

240

(1)

18.2.5.5 Uncountable Membranes with More Than 60 Colonies

240

(1)

18.2.6 Verification

240

(1)

18.2.6.1 Procedure

240

(1)

18.3 Delayed Incubation MF Method

240

(2)

18.3.1 Application

240

(1)

18.3.2 Equipment and Glassware

240

(1)

18.3.3 Culture Media

241

(1)

18.3.3.1 Preparation of the M-VFC Medium

241

(1)

18.3.4 Counting and Recording Colonies

242

(1)

18.4 The Most Probable Number (MPN) Method

242

(2)

18.4.1 Application

242

(1)

18.4.2 Equipment and Glassware

242

(1)

18.4.3 Media

242

(1)

18.4.3.1 Lauryl Tryptose Broth

242

(1)

18.4.3.2 EC Medium

242

(1)

18.4.3.3 Dilution Water

242

(1)

18.4.4 Procedure

242

(2)

18.4.5 Calculation and Reporting

244

(1)

18.5 The MUG Test

244

(1)

18.6 Application for Soil, Sediment, and Sludge Samples

244

(1)

18.7 Analytical Quality Control (QC) Procedure

244

(1)

Chapter 19 Determination of Fecal Streptococcus

245

(10)

19.1 Introduction

245

(1)

19.1.1 The Fecal Coliform and Fecal Streptococci, FC/FS Ratio

245

(1)

19.2 Enterococci Portion of the Fecal Streptococcus Group

246

(1)

19.3 Membrane Filter (MF) Technique

246

(3)

19.3.1 Application

246

(1)

19.3.2 Equipment and Glassware

246

(1)

19.3.3 Culture Media

247

(1)

19.3.3.1 Preparation of KF Streptococcus Agar

247

(1)

19.3.3.1.1 1 Percent Solution of 2, 3, 5-triphenyl-tetrazolium-chloride (TTC)

247

(1)

19.3.3.1.2 10 Percent Sodium Carbonate, Na(2)CO(3)

247

(1)

19.3.3.2 Preparation of Brain Heart Infusion Broth (BHI)

247

(1)

19.3.3.3 Brain Heart Infusion Agar (BHI Agar)

247

(1)

19.3.3.4 Brain Heart Infusion Broth with 40 Percent Bile

248

(1)

19.3.3.4.1 Preparation of 10 percent Oxgall Solution

248

(1)

19.3.3.5 Dilution Water

248

(1)

19.3.4 Procedures

248

(1)

19.3.4.1 Sample Volume

248

(1)

19.3.5 Counting and Recording Colonies

248

(1)

19.3.6 Verification

248

(1)

19.4 Delayed MF Procedure

249

(1)

19.5 Most Probable Number (MPN) Method

249

(2)

19.5.1 Culture Media

249

(1)

19.5.1.1 Azide Dextrose Broth

249

(1)

19.5.1.2 Pfizer Selective Enterococcus, (PSE) Agar

250

(1)

19.5.2 Procedure

251

(1)

19.5.2.1 Presumptive Test

251

(1)

19.5.2.2 Confirmed Test

251

(1)

19.5.3 Calculation

251

(1)

19.6 Pour Plate Method

251

(3)

19.6.1 Media

252

(1)

19.6.2 Procedure

252

(1)

19.6.3 Counting and Reporting

252

(1)

19.6.3.1 Plates with 30 to 300 Colonies

252

(1)

19.6.3.2 All Plates Greater than 300 Colonies

253

(1)

19.6.3.3 All Plates with Fewer than 30 Colonies

253

(1)

19.6.3.4 Plate with No Colonies

253

(1)

19.6.3.5 All Plates Are Crowded

253

(1)

19.7 Procedures for Soils, Sediments, and Sludges

254

(1)

19.8 Analytical Quality Control (QC) Procedures

254

(1)

Chapter 20 Enterobacteriaceae

255

(10)

20.1 Introduction

255

(1)

20.1.1 Coliform Organisms

255

(1)

20.1.2 Differentiation of Enterobacteriaceae

255

(1)

20.2 ENTEROTUBE II

256

(4)

20.2.1 Operation of ENTEROTUBE II

256

(1)

20.2.2 To Read ENTEROTUBE II

257

(1)

20.2.3 To Indicate Positive Reactions

257

(1)

20.2.4 Ordering Information

257

(3)

20.3 BBL OXI/FERM Tube II

260

(1)

20.4 API 20E System

260

(5)

20.4.1 Operation of API 20E

263

(2)

Chapter 21 Iron and Sulfur Bacteria

265

(6)

21.1 Introduction to Iron and Sulfur Bacteria

265

(1)

21.2 Iron Bacteria

265

(2)

21.2.1 Identification of Iron Bacteria

266

(1)

21.3 Sulfur Bacteria

267

(3)

21.3.1 Common Forms of Sulfur Bacteria

267

(1)

21.3.1.1 Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria

268

(1)

21.3.1.2 Photosynthetic Green and Purple Sulfur Bacteria

268

(1)

21.3.1.3 Colorless Filamentous Sulfur Bacteria

268

(1)

21.3.1.4 Aerobic Sulfur Oxidizers

268

(1)

21.3.2 Identification of Sulfur Bacteria

269

(1)

21.3.2.1 Green and Purple Sulfur Bacteria

269

(1)

21.3.2.2 Colorless Filamentous Sulfur Bacteria

269

(1)

21.3.2.3 Colorless Nonfilamentous Sulfur Bacteria

270

(1)

21.3.2.4 Colorless Small Sulfur Bacteria and Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria

270

(1)

21.4 Enumeration, Enrichment, and Isolation of Iron and Sulfur Bacteria

270

(1)

Chapter 22 Detection of Actinomycetes

271

(6)

22.1 General Introduction

271

(1)

22.1.1 Actinomycetes

271

(1)

22.1.2 Streptomyces

271

(1)

22.2 Determination of Actinomycetes Density

272

(5)

22.2.1 Plating Method

272

(1)

22.2.2 Preparation and Dilution of Samples

272

(1)

22.2.3 Preparation of Soil Samples

272

(1)

22.2.4 Medium

273

(1)

22.2.5 Procedure

273

(1)

22.2.6 Counting

273

(1)

22.2.7 Calculation and Reporting

274

(1)

22.2.7.1 Alternative Calculations

275

(2)

Appendix A Exponential Notation

277

(2)

A.1 General Discussion

277

(2)

A.1.1 Numbers Greater Than 10 in Exponential Notation

277

(1)

A.1.2 Numbers Less Than 1 in Exponential Notation

278

(1)

A.1.3 Adding and Subtracting Numbers in Exponential Notation

278

(1)

A.1.4 Multiplying and Dividing Numbers in Exponential Notation

278

(1)

Appendix B International System of Units (Metric System)

279

(2)

B.1 Derived SI Units

279

(1)

B.2 Derived SI Units with Special Names

279

(1)

B.3 Prefixes

280

(1)

B.4 Useful Conversion Factors

280

(1)

Appendix C Units and Conversion Factors

281

(2)

C.1 Conversion to Metric Measures

281

(1)

C.2 Conversion from Metric Measures

281

(2)

Appendix D Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

283

(8)

D.1 Scope and Application

283

(2)

D.1.1 Carbonaceous vs. Nitrogenous BOD

283

(1)

D.1.2 Dilution Requirements

283

(1)

D.1.3 Summary of the Method

284

(1)

D.1.4 Sampling and Storage

284

(1)

D.1.5 Sample Collection for the Winkler Method

284

(1)

D.1.6 Interferences

285

(1)

D.2 Apparatus and Material

285

(1)

D.3 Reagents

285

(1)

D.4 Procedure

286

(2)

D.4.1 DO Meter Calibration

286

(1)

D.4.2 Preanalysis Checking

287

(1)

D.4.3 Analysis

287

(1)

D.5 Calculation

288

(1)

D.5.1 BOD Concentration

288

(1)

D.5.2 Correction Factor for Seed Control

288

(1)

D.5.3 Dilution Factor

289

(1)

D.5.4 Alternative Calculation

289

(1)

D.6 Quality Control

289

(1)

D.6.1 Method Blank

289

(1)

D.6.2 Seed Control

289

(1)

D.6.3 Reference Standard (Glucose-Glutamic Acid Standard)

289

(1)

D.6.4 DO Meter Performance Check

290

(1)

D.6.5 Accuracy

290

(1)

D.6.6 Precision

290

(1)

D.7 Safety

290

(1)

Appendix E Determination of Solids

291

(10)

E.1 General Discussion

291

(1)

E.1.1 Sample Collection and Handling

291

(1)

E.1.2 Sample Pretreatment

291

(1)

E.2 Determination of Total Solids (TS) Dried at 103 to 105(Degree)C

291

(1)

E.2.1 Principle of the Method

291

(1)

E.2.2 Interferences

291

(1)

E.2.3 Apparatus and Material

292

(1)

E.2.4 Procedure

292

(1)

E.2.5 Calculation

292

(1)

E.2.6 Quality Control

292

(1)

E.2.6.1 Method Blank

292

(1)

E.3 Determination of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Dried at 180(Degree)C

292

(3)

E.3.1 Principle of the Method

292

(1)

E.3.2 Interferences

293

(1)

E.3.3 Apparatus and Material

293

(1)

E.3.4 Reagents

293

(1)

E.3.4.1 Reference Standards, 500 mg per 1

293

(1)

E.3.5 Procedure

293

(1)

E.3.5.1 Preparation of Evaporation Dishes

293

(1)

E.3.5.2 Sample Analysis

294

(1)

E.3.6 Calculation

294

(1)

E.3.7 Quality Control

295

(1)

E.3.7.1 Method Blank

295

(1)

E.3.7.2 Reference Standard

295

(1)

E.3.7.3 Duplicates

295

(1)

E.4 Determination of the Total Suspended Solids (TSS) Dried at 103 to 105(Degree)C

295

(1)

E.4.1 Principle of the Method

295

(1)

E.4.2 Interferences

295

(1)

E.4.3 Apparatus and Material

295

(1)

E.4.4 Procedure

295

(1)

E.4.4.1 Filter Preparation

295

(1)

E.4.4.2 Sample Analysis

296

(1)

E.4.5 Calculation

296

(1)

E.5 Fixed and Volatile Solids Ignited at 500(Degree)C

296

(1)

E.5.1 Principle of the Method

296

(1)

E.5.2 Interferences

297

(1)

E.5.3 Apparatus and Material

297

(1)

E.5.4 Procedures

297

(1)

E.5.5 Calculation

297

(1)

E.6 Total, Fixed, and Volatile Solids in Solid and Semisolid Samples

297

(1)

E.6.1 Principle of the Method

297

(1)

E.6.2 Interferences

297

(1)

E.6.3 Apparatus and Material

298

(1)

E.6.4 Procedure

298

(1)

E.6.4.1 Preparation of Evaporation Dishes

298

(1)

E.6.4.2 Sample Analysis

298

(1)

E.6.5 Calculation

298

(1)

E.6.6 Quality Control

298

(1)

E.7 Settleable Solids

298

(3)

E.7.1 Principle of the Method

298

(1)

E.7.2 Apparatus

298

(1)

E.7.3 Procedure

299

(2)

Appendix F Determination of pH

301

(6)

F.1 General Discussion

301

(1)

F.2 Sample Collection and Holding Time

301

(1)

F.3 Potentiometric Determination of pH

301

(3)

F.3.1 Principle of the Method

301

(1)

F.3.2 Interferences

302

(1)

F.3.3 Apparatus and Materials

302

(1)

F.3.4 Reagents

302

(1)

F.3.5 Meter Calibration

303

(1)

F.3.6 Measurement of Aqueous Samples and Wastes Containing Greater Than 20 Percent Water

303

(1)

F.3.7 Measurement of Solid Samples

303

(1)

F.3.8 General Rules

304

(1)

F.4 Quality Control (QC)

304

(3)

F.4.1 Duplicate Analysis

304

(1)

F.4.2 Initial Calibration Verification (ICV)

304

(1)

F.4.3 Continuing Calibration Verification (CCV)

305

(1)

F.4.4 Calculate Accuracy

305

(2)

Appendix G Bacteriophages

307

(2)

G.1 Coliform Counts

307

(2)

G.1.1 Total Coliforms

307

(1)

G.1.2 Fecal Coliforms

307

(2)

Bibliography

309

(2)

Index

311

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Microbiological Examination of Water and Wastewater

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials