Military Airframe Costs: The Effects of

Analyzes the effects of materials and manufacturing techniques on airframe costs and explores the implications of these effects on acquisition policy.

Preface

iii

Figures

ix

Tables

xi

Summary

xiii

Acknowledgments

xvii

Acronyms

xxi

Introduction

1

(6)

Background and Purpose

1

(1)

Relation to Previous Work

2

(3)

How This Report Is Organized

5

(2)

Material Characteristics

7

(34)

Background and Historical Perspective

7

(8)

What Are Composite Materials, and Why Are They Used in Producing Aircraft?

7

(1)

Why Aren't All Metal Parts Replaced by Composites?

8

(7)

Material Properties Defined

15

(4)

Specific Material Properties

19

(1)

Composite Materials

19

(10)

Reinforcing Material

20

(3)

Matrix Materials

23

(1)

Thermoset Matrices

23

(1)

Thermoplastic materials

24

(2)

Combining Reinforcement and the Matrix: The Composite Material

26

(3)

Advantages of Composite Materials in Airframe Applications

29

(5)

Weight Versus Strength and Stiffness

29

(1)

Directionality of Strength and Stiffness

30

(1)

Composite Part Design Issues

31

(1)

Part Complexity and Design Automation

31

(2)

Composite Unitization

33

(1)

Other Considerations in Using Composites

34

(4)

Knowledge Base for Composite Materials

34

(1)

Failure Modes

35

(1)

Tooling

36

(1)

Nondestructive Inspection and Test (NDI/T)

37

(1)

Metals

38

(3)

Aluminum

38

(1)

Titanium

39

(1)

Steel

39

(2)

Manufacturing Techniques

41

(14)

Composite Manufacturing Techniques

41

(10)

Hand Layup

42

(2)

Automation in Hand Layup

44

(1)

Automated Fiber Placement

44

(3)

Resin Transfer Molding

47

(2)

Other Current Composite Manufacturing Techniques

49

(1)

Possible Future Manufacturing Techniques

50

(1)

Metal Manufacturing Techniques

51

(4)

Conventional Processes

51

(2)

High-Speed Machining of Aluminum

53

(1)

High-Performance Machining of Titanium

53

(1)

Hot Isostatic Press Investment Casting of Titanium

53

(1)

Laser Forming of Titanium

54

(1)

Airframe Cost Information

55

(28)

Revisiting the Resetar, Rogers, and Hess Study

55

(3)

Current Study Results: Aggregate Airframe Data by Functional Labor Category

58

(7)

Nonrecurring Engineering

59

(1)

Nonrecurring Tooling

60

(1)

Recurring Engineering

61

(1)

Recurring Tooling

62

(1)

Recurring Manufacturing

63

(1)

Recurring Quality Assurance

64

(1)

Comparison to 1980s Survey Results

65

(4)

Current Study Results: Part-Level Data by Materials, Manufacturing Process, and Part Geometric Complexity

69

(7)

Part Geometric Complexity

70

(1)

Methodology

71

(2)

Results

73

(3)

Cost Improvement Slopes

76

(1)

Weight-Sizing Slopes

77

(1)

Material Costs

78

(3)

Raw Material Costs

78

(3)

Buy-to-Fly

81

(2)

Airframe Cost-Estimating Methodology

83

(14)

Application of Survey Cost Ratios to CERs

83

(3)

Statistical Analysis of the Recurring Costs of Recent Fighters

86

(11)

The MACDAR Database

86

(1)

``Stylized Facts''

87

(2)

Statistical Results

89

(8)

Applying the Results

97

(36)

Applying the Survey Cost Ratios

97

(2)

Applying the Part-Level Data

99

(1)

Comparison of Airframes Manufactured Using Traditional Techniques with Those Using Advanced Techniques

100

(4)

Cost Ratios in the 2000s: Optimistic and Pessimistic Projections

104

(2)

Cost-Estimating Considerations for Airframe Stealth Requirements

106

(1)

Lean Manufacturing and Acquisition Reform

107

(2)

Conclusion

109

(2)

Appendix

A. Stress-Strain Diagram

111

(2)

B. Aircraft Weight Definitions

113

(2)

C. Aircraft Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) Levels (From Military Specification 881)

115

(12)

D. Airframe Development Cost-Estimating Relationships

127

(2)

E. Subjects of the Three Rand Studies on Industry Initiatives Designed to Reduce the Cost of Producing Military Aircraft

129

(4)

Bibliography

133

(6)

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Military Airframe Costs: The Effects of Advances Materials and Manufacturing Processes

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials