Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator Residues

, by Sloot, H. A. Van Der; Eighmy, T. Taylor; Hartlen, Jan; Hjelmar, Ole; Kosson, David S.; Sawell, Steven E.

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ISBN: 9780444825636 | 0444825630
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 4/1/1997

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This text covers a broad spectrum of topics pertinent to the management of incinerator residues. Background information includes a history of incineration, and the influence of municipal waste composition, incinerator type air pollution control technologies on residue quality. Physical, chemical and leaching characteristics for the various ash streams are described, along with recommended sampling and evaluation methodologies. Residue handling and management options, including, treatment utilisation and disposal are also discussed in detail.

PREFACE

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

(14)

1.1 A BRIEF HISTORICAL EXCURSUS

(1)

1.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WASTE INCINERATION

(10)

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THIS TREATISE

(1)

REFERENCES

(2)

CHAPTER 2 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

(44)

2.0 INTRODUCTION

(1)

2.1 DEFINITION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

(2)

2.2 COMPOSITION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

(4)

2.3 QUANTITY AND MANAGEMENT

(20)

2.3.1 Canada

(3)

2.3.2 Denmark

(1)

2.3.3 France

(2)

2.3.4 Germany

(3)

2.3.5 Japan

(1)

2.3.6 The Netherlands

(3)

2.3.7 Sweden

(2)

2.3.8 Switzerland

(1)

2.3.9 United Kingdom

(2)

2.3.10 United States

(2)

2.4 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

(10)

REFERENCES

(8)

CHAPTER 3 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE INCINERATION TECHNOLOGIES

(38)

3.1 FUEL RECEIPT AND HANDLING

(2)

3.2 AVAILABLE COMBUSTION ALTERNATIVES

(26)

3.2.1 Mass Burning Systems

(17)

European Type Systems

(3)

Grates

(5)

Furnace Design

(3)

Operating Philosophy

(3)

Modular Incineration Systems

(1)

Other Mass Burn Variants

(2)

3.2.2 Refuse Derived Fuel Systems

(8)

Semi-Suspension Burning Systems

(3)

Stoker Fired Systems

(1)

Fluidised Bed Systems

(2)

3.3 HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS

(2)

3.4 IN-PLANT RESIDUE MANAGEMENT

(6)

3.4.1 Bottom Ash

(2)

3.4.2 Grate Siftings

(2)

3.4.3 Heat Transfer System Ash

(1)

REFERENCES

(2)

CHAPTER 4 AIR EMISSION CONTROL STRATEGIES

(38)

4.0 INTRODUCTION

(1)

4.1 COMBUSTION CONTROL

(4)

4.1.1 Theory

(4)

Compensation for Fuel Variability

(1)

Factors Controlling the Chemical Reaction Rate

(3)

4.2 POST-COMBUSTION CONTROL

101

(17)

4.2.1 Unit Processes For Air Pollution Control

103

(15)

Particulate Matter Control Systems

103

(1)

Electrostatic Precipitators

104

(2)

Fabric Filter (Baghouses)

106

(3)

Gaseous Controls

109

(1)

Wet Systems

109

(2)

Dry Systems

111

(1)

Metals Control in Dry Systems

112

(1)

Mercury Control with Activated Carbon

113

(2)

NO(x) Removal

115

(3)

4.3 TYPICAL APC INSTALLATIONS

118

(13)

4.3.1 Hogdalen, Sweden

118

(1)

4.3.2 Munich South, Germany

118

(4)

4.3.3 Warren County, New Jersey, USA

122

(1)

4.3.4 Zirndorf, Germany

122

(3)

4.3.5 Vestforbraending, Copenhagen

125

(1)

4.3.6 Lausanne, Switzerland

125

(3)

4.3.7 Bremerhaven, Germany

128

(1)

4.3.8 Stuttgart, Germany

128

(3)

REFERENCES

131

(4)

CHAPTER 5 REGULATION OF MSW INCINERATORS

135

(32)

5.1 EXISTING MSW INCINERATOR OPERATING GUIDELINES

137

(3)

5.1.1 Furnace Temperature and Residence Time

137

(2)

5.1.2 Combustion Efficiency and Carbon Monoxide

139

(1)

5.1.3 APC Temperatures

139

(1)

5.1.4 Other Aspects

140

(1)

5.2 AIR EMISSION STANDARDS

140

(9)

5.2.1 Chronological Changes in Emission Standards

141

(3)

5.2.2 Emissions of Combustion Products and Acid Gases

144

(1)

Hydrogen Chloride

144

(1)

Particulate Matter

144

(1)

Sulphur Dioxide

144

(1)

Oxides of Nitrogen

145

(1)

Carbon Monoxide

145

(1)

Total Hydrocarbons

145

(1)

Hydrogen Fluoride

145

(1)

5.2.3 Trace Metals Emission Standards

145

(2)

5.2.4 Trace Organic Emission Standards

147

(2)

5.3 CURRENT ASH AND RESIDUE DISPOSAL PRACTICES

149

(12)

5.3.1 Disposal of Bottom Ash

149

(4)

Canada

149

(1)

Denmark

149

(1)

France

150

(1)

Germany and Switzerland

150

(1)

Netherlands

150

(2)

Sweden

152

(1)

United Kingdom

152

(1)

United States

152

(1)

Japan

153

(1)

5.3.2 Disposal of Fly Ash and APC Residues

153

(2)

Canada

153

(1)

Denmark & the Netherlands

153

(1)

France

154

(1)

Germany

154

(1)

Netherlands

155

(1)

Sweden

155

(1)

Japan

155

(1)

5.3.3 Utilisation

155

(6)

Canada

156

(1)

Denmark

156

(1)

France

156

(1)

Netherlands

157

(1)

Germany

157

(1)

Sweden

158

(3)

Japan

161

(1)

United States

161

(1)

REFERENCES

161

(6)

CHAPTER 6 ISSUES RELATED TO INCINERATOR ASH SAMPLING

167

(36)

6.0 INTRODUCTION

167

(1)

6.1 THE CONCEPT OF THE REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE

167

(4)

6.1.1 Waste Type

168

(1)

6.1.2 Type of Incinerator APC System

169

(1)

6.1.3 Residue Streams

170

(1)

6.2 OBJECTIVES OF MATERIAL SAMPLING PROGRAMS

171

(3)

6.3 AVAILABLE SAMPLING PROTOCOLS

174

(1)

6.4 SAMPLING CONSIDERATIONS

175

(13)

6.4.1 Increment Collection Classification

175

(2)

6.4.2 Bias

177

(1)

6.4.3 Precision

178

(1)

Number of Increments in Composite Sample

178

(1)

6.4.4 Size of Increments

179

(1)

6.4.5 Collection Procedures

180

(1)

6.4.6 Sampling Streams Other Than Bottom Ash

181

(2)

Grate Siftings and Heat Recovery Ash

181

(1)

APC Residues

182

(1)

Storage Piles

182

(1)

Sampling from Trucks or Containers

183

(1)

6.4.7 Sample Preparation Concerns

183

(5)

Sample Size Reduction

183

(2)

Preservation of Samples

185

(1)

Sample Containers

185

(1)

Sample Storage

186

(1)

Laboratory Sample Preparation

186

(1)

Laboratory Sample Subdivision

186

(1)

Drying

187

(1)

Size Reduction

187

(1)

Balance of Materials

188

(1)

6.5 SAMPLE COLLECTION RECOMMENDATIONS

188

(6)

6.5.1 Generic Bottom Ash Testing Protocol

188

(3)

6.5.2 Generic Boiler Ash Sampling Protocol

191

(1)

6.5.3 Generic APC Residue Sampling Protocol

192

(1)

6.5.4 Documentation of Sampling and Preparation Procedures

193

(1)

6.6 EXAMPLES OF SAMPLING STRATEGIES

194

(6)

6.6.1 Bottom Ash

194

(3)

Regulatory Testing

194

(2)

Research Testing

196

(1)

6.6.2 Grate Siftings

197

(1)

6.6.3 Boiler Economiser Ash

198

(1)

Regulatory Sampling

198

(1)

Research Sampling

199

(1)

6.6.4 Air Pollution Control System Residues

199

(1)

Regulatory Testing

199

(1)

Research Testing

200

(1)

REFERENCES

200

(3)

CHAPTER 7 CHARACTERISATION METHODOLOGIES

203

(60)

7.1 PHYSICAL TESTING

203

(18)

7.1.1 Visual Observation

203

(2)

Method

203

(1)

Bottom Ash

203

(2)

Fly Ash and APC Residue

205

(1)

7.1.2 Particle Size Distribution

205

(1)

Test Methods

205

(1)

Dry Sieve Methods

206

(1)

Fine Particle Analyses Methods

206

(1)

7.1.3 Density

206

(2)

Bulk Density

207

(1)

Specific Gravity

207

(1)

Laboratory Testing

207

(1)

Field Testing

208

(1)

7.1.4 Absorption Test

208

(1)

Test Method

208

(1)

7.1.5 Water Content

208

(1)

Test Methods

209

(1)

7.1.6 Proctor Compaction Test

209

(2)

Standard Proctor

210

(1)

Modified Proctor

210

(1)

7.1.7 Strength and Strength Development

211

(1)

7.1.8 Bearing Capacity

212

(1)

7.1.9 Durability

212

(2)

Soundness Tests

213

(1)

LA Abrasion Test

213

(1)

Freeze-Thaw Tests

214

(1)

7.1.10 Permeability

214

(7)

Test Methods

214

(7)

7.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

221

(17)

7.2.1 Sample Preparation

221

(2)

Size Reduction Techniques

221

(2)

7.2.2 Inorganic Analyses

223

(3)

Digestion Techniques

223

(2)

Specialty Methods for Specific Elements

225

(1)

7.2.3 Analytical Measurement

226

(6)

Destructive Methods

226

(3)

Non-Destructive Analytical Methods

229

(3)

7.2.4 Loss on Ignition

232

(2)

7.2.5 Total Carbon, Carbonate, Sulphur and Ammonia

234

(1)

7.2.6 Acid Neutralisation Capacity

235

(1)

7.2.7 Organic Analyses

236

(2)

Sample Preservation

236

(1)

Extraction

237

(1)

Analysis

237

(1)

7.3 CHEMICAL SPECIATION METHODS

238

(16)

7.3.1 Separatory Techniques

238

(5)

Sample Drying

240

(1)

Particle Size Reduction

240

(1)

Magnetic Separation Techniques

241

(1)

Density Separation Techniques

242

(1)

Selective Phase Dissolution Methods

242

(1)

7.3.2 Impregnation, Thin-Sections, and Thin-Foil Methods

243

(2)

7.3.3 Analytical Methods for Solid Phase Chemical Speciation

245

(9)

Transmitted Light Microscopy

247

(1)

Scanning Electron Microscopy

247

(1)

Petrography (Morphology)

247

(2)

Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy

249

(1)

X-Ray Powder Diffraction

249

(1)

Petrography (Mineralogy)

250

(1)

Scanning Electron Microscopy X-Ray Microprobe Analysis

250

(1)

Scanning-Transmission Electron Microscopy X-Ray Microprobe Analysis

250

(1)

Auger Electron Spectroscopy

251

(1)

X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy

251

(1)

X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

251

(1)

Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy

252

(1)

Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy

252

(1)

X-Ray Adsorption Spectroscopy and Extended X-Ray Adsorption Fine Structure

253

(1)

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

253

(1)

Infrared Spectroscopy and Raman Spectroscopy

254

(1)

REFERENCES

254

(9)

CHAPTER 8 FATE OF ELEMENTS DURING INCINERATION

263

(76)

8.1 MECHANISMS CONTROLLING THE FATE OF ELEMENTS

264

(21)

8.1.1 Fundamentals

264

(1)

8.1.2 Processes in the Combustion Chamber

265

(15)

Physical Parameters

265

(1)

Chemical Reactions

266

(6)

Sintering and Related Processes

272

(5)

Physicochemical Transformations

277

(3)

8.1.3 Mechanisms in the Boiler

280

(4)

Condensation

280

(1)

Corrosion

281

(3)

8.1.4 Mechanisms in the Dust Removal System

284

(1)

8.1.5 Mechanisms in the Air Pollution Control System

285

(1)

8.2 MASS STREAMS IN A MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE INCINERATOR

285

(2)

8.3 LITHOPHILIC ELEMENTS

287

(9)

8.3.1 Fundamentals

287

(1)

8.3.2 Alkali Metals

288

(2)

8.3.3 Earth-Alkali Metals

290

(1)

8.3.4 Heavy Metals

291

(5)

Iron

292

(2)

Chromium

294

(1)

Nickel

295

(1)

Copper

295

(1)

8.4 VOLATILE ELEMENTS

296

(16)

8.4.1 Halogens

296

(7)

Chlorine

297

(1)

Fluorine

298

(2)

Bromine and Iodine

300

(1)

Sulphur

300

(2)

Nitrogen

302

(1)

8.4.2 Volatile Metals

303

(9)

Mercury

304

(1)

Cadmium

305

(2)

Zinc

307

(1)

Lead

308

(2)

Arsenic

310

(1)

Antimony

311

(1)

Other Volatile Elements

312

(1)

8.5 CARBON AND SELECTED CARBON COMPOUNDS

312

(14)

8.5.1 Total Carbon

312

(2)

8.5.2 Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and -Furans

314

(6)

8.5.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls

320

(2)

8.5.4 Polychlorinated Benzenes

322

(1)

8.5.5 Polychlorinated Phenols

323

(1)

8.5.6 Brominated Hydrocarbons

324

(1)

8.5.7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

324

(2)

REFERENCES

326

(13)

CHAPTER 9 BOTTOM ASH

339

(80)

9.1 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BOTTOM ASH

342

(26)

9.1.1 Gross Composition

342

(9)

Reject Fraction

342

(1)

Visual Classification

343

(2)

Water Content

345

(1)

Ferrous Content

346

(1)

Loss on Ignition

347

(4)

Dissolvable Solids Content

351

(1)

9.1.2 Gravimetric Characteristics

351

(6)

Specific Gravity

353

(1)

Absorption

353

(3)

Unit Weight

356

(1)

9.1.3 Gradation

357

(3)

Percent Fines

359

(1)

9.1.4 Durability

360

(2)

Soundness

360

(1)

Abrasion Resistance

361

(1)

9.1.5 Geotechnical Properties

362

(4)

Proctor Compaction

362

(2)

Field Compaction

364

(1)

California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

364

(2)

9.1.6 Permeability

366

(1)

9.1.7 Influence of Combustor Type and Operation on Physical Characteristics

366

(1)

9.1.8 Influence of Aging on Bottom Ash Physical Characteristics

367

(1)

9.2 PARTICLE MORPHOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND ALKALINITY OF BOTTOM ASH

368

(8)

9.2.1 Morphology

368

(2)

9.2.2 Mineralogy

370

(2)

9.2.3 Alkalinity

372

(2)

9.2.4 Influence of Combustor Type and Operation on Bottom Ash Surface Area, Mineralogy and Alkalinity

374

(1)

9.2.5 Influence of Aging on Bottom Ash Surface Area, Mineralogy and Alkalinity

374

(2)

9.3 INORGANIC CHARACTERISTICS OF BOTTOM ASH

376

(30)

9.3.1 Elements Present in Bottom Ash

377

(2)

9.3.2 Major Matrix Elements (less than 10,000 mg kg): O, Si, Fe, Ca, Al, Na, K, C

379

(4)

9.3.3 Minor Matrix Elements (1,000 to 10,000 mg kg): Mg, Ti, Cl, Mn, Ba

383

(2)

9.3.4 Other Minor Elements (1,000 to 10,000 mg kg): Zn, Cu, Pb, Cr

385

(3)

9.3.5 Other Trace Elements Including Oxyanionic Elements (greater than 1,000 mg kg): Sb, V, Mo, As, Se

388

(3)

9.3.6 Other Trace Elements (greater than 1,000 mg kg): Sr, Ni, Co, Cd, Ag, Hg

391

(5)

9.3.7 Other Trace Elements Continued (greater than 1,000 mg kg): B, Br, F, I

396

(1)

9.3.8 Elements Related to Biogeochemical Cycles: C, S, N, P

397

(3)

9.3.9 Exotic Elements, Lanthanides, Actinides

400

(1)

9.3.10 Isotopes

400

(1)

9.3.11 Role of Particle Size in Element Distribution

400

(1)

9.3.12 Influence of Combustor Type and Operation on Bottom Ash Inorganic Characteristics

401

(4)

9.3.13 Influence of Aging on Bottom Ash Inorganic Characteristics

405

(1)

9.4 ORGANIC CHARACTERISTICS OF BOTTOM ASH

406

(2)

9.4.1 Organics Present in Bottom Ash

406

(1)

9.4.2 Dioxins and Furans

406

(2)

9.4.3 Chlorinated Benzenes and Chlorinated Phenols

408

(1)

9.4.4 Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons and Polychlorinated Biphenyls

408

(1)

9.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF GRATE SIFTINGS

408

(1)

9.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMBINED ASH AND SCRUBBER RESIDUE

409

(4)

REFERENCES

413

(6)

CHAPTER 10 CHARACTERISTICS OF HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEM ASH

419

(22)

10.1 ASH DEPOSITION MECHANISMS

419

(3)

10.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

422

(3)

10.2.1 Particle Size Distribution

422

(2)

10.2.2 Particle Morphology

424

(1)

10.3 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

425

(13)

10.3.1 pH and Acid Neutralisation Capacity

426

(1)

10.3.2 Solubility in Water

426

(2)

10.3.3 Chemical Composition

428

(3)

10.3.4 Heavy Metals

431

(2)

10.3.5 "Volatile" Metals

433

(2)

10.3.6 Organic Contaminants

435

(3)

PCDD PCDF

435

(2)

Other Chlorinated Organics

437

(1)

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)

437

(1)

REFERENCES

438

(3)

CHAPTER 11 CHARACTERISATION OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL RESIDUES

441

(42)

11.1 INTRODUCTION

441

(2)

11.1.1 Terminology

441

(2)

Fly Ash

441

(1)

Dry System Residues

442

(1)

Semi-dry System Residues

442

(1)

Wet Scrubber Sludge

442

(1)

11.2 MAJOR FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF APC RESIDUES

443

(1)

11.3 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF APC RESIDUES

444

(6)

11.3.1 General Appearance and Behaviour

444

(1)

11.3.2 Particle Size Distribution

444

(3)

11.3.3 Geotechnical Properties

447

(3)

11.4 PARTICLE MORPHOLOGY AND MINERALOGY

450

(2)

11.5 WATER SOLUBILITY

452

(1)

11.6 LOSS ON IGNITION

453

(1)

11.7 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

454

(22)

11.7.1 pH and Acid Neutralisation Capacity

457

(3)

11.7.2 Chemical Composition: Inorganic Constituents

460

(13)

Ranges of Elemental Composition of APC System Residues

461

(3)

Major Elements (less than 10,000 mg kg): O, Cl, Ca, Si, Mg, Fe, Al, K, Na, Zn, S, Pb

464

(6)

Trace Elements (less than 1,000 mg kg): Hg, Cd, Sb, Cr, Sr, Ni, As, V, Ag, Co, Mo, Se

470

(3)

11.7.3 Role of Particle Size in Element Distribution

473

(1)

11.7.4 Chemical Composition: Organic Constituents

473

(3)

Organics Present in APC System Residues

473

(1)

Chlorinated Benzenes and Phenols

474

(2)

Polychlorinated Biphenyls

476

(1)

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

476

(1)

Dioxins and Furans

476

(1)

Phthalates

476

(1)

11.8 COMPOSITION OF WASTEWATER FROM WET SCRUBBER APC SYSTEMS

476

(2)

REFERENCES

478

(5)

CHAPTER 12 PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF LEACHING

483

(24)

12.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO LEACHING

483

(8)

12.1.1 Physical Aspects of Leaching

485

(2)

The Leaching System

485

(1)

Particle Characteristics

486

(1)

Fluid Flow Past Particles

486

(1)

The Local Equilibrium Assumption

487

(1)

12.1.2 Chemical Aspects of Leaching

487

(2)

Equilibrium Versus Kinetic Systems

488

(1)

Influence of pH on Dissolution

488

(1)

Influence of Complexation on Dissolution

488

(1)

Influence of Oxidation-Reduction Potential on Dissolution

489

(1)

Influence of Sorption on Leaching

489

(1)

12.1.3 Leaching Tests

489

(1)

12.1.4 Leaching Modelling

490

(1)

12.1.5 Unified Approach to Leaching

491

(1)

12.2 THE SOLID PHASE LEACHANT SOLUTE LEACHING SYSTEM

491

(4)

12.2.1 The Leaching System Concept

491

(1)

12.2.2 A Multiphase Heterogeneous System

491

(2)

12.2.3 Leaching Scenarios

493

(2)

12.3 RESIDUE PARTICLES AS A SOLID PHASE

495

(3)

12.3.1 Particle Characteristics

495

(1)

12.3.2 Particle Morphology

496

(2)

12.4 FLUID FLOW, DIFFUSION AND MASS TRANSFER

498

(6)

12.4.1 Fluid Flow Through Residues

498

(2)

12.4.2 Fluid Flow Past Particles in Suspension

500

(1)

12.4.3 Diffusional Processes and Internal Mass Transfer Considerations in Residues

501

(2)

12.4.4 External Mass Transfer Considerations in Residues

503

(1)

12.5 THE LOCAL EQUILIBRIUM ASSUMPTION

504

(1)

REFERENCES

505

(2)

CHAPTER 13 CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF LEACHING

507

(72)

13.1 LEACHING CHEMISTRY FUNDAMENTALS

507

(15)

13.1.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium Models Versus Kinetic Models

507

(4)

13.1.2 Ionic Strength, Ion Activity, Activity Coefficients

511

(6)

13.1.3 Cation Anion Balances

517

(3)

13.1.4 A Note on General Equilibrium Constants

520

(2)

13.2 SOLUTION COMPLEXATION AND SPECIATION

522

(9)

13.2.1 Solution Complexation Equilibria

524

(1)

13.2.2 An Example of Lead Complexation in a Hypothetical Leaching Solution

525

(5)

13.2.3 Leaching Solution Speciation

530

(1)

13.3 DISSOLUTION PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

531

(19)

13.3.1 Heterogeneous Dissolution Precipitation Equilibria

532

(2)

13.3.2 Oversaturation Undersaturation and the Ion Activity Product

534

(2)

13.3.3 Metastability

536

(2)

13.3.4 An Example of Lead Dissolution Precipitation as PbSO(4)(S): A Very Simple Leaching System

538

(2)

13.3.5 An Example of Lead Dissolution Precipitation as Pb(OH)(2)(S): The Role of Solution Phase Complexation and Amphoterism

540

(3)

13.3.6 An Example of Lead Dissolution Precipitation as PbCO(3)(S): The Role of CO(2)(g) in Controlling Metal Carbonate Formation

543

(1)

13.3.7 Solubility Control and the Coexistence of Multiple Solid Phases

544

(2)

13.3.8 An Example of Lead Dissolution Precipitation When Both Pb(OH)(2)(S) and PbCO(3)(S) are Present

546

(2)

13.3.9 Solid Phase Stability in a Redox-Variable System

548

(2)

13.4 CHEMICAL WEATHERING AND AGING

550

(8)

13.4.1 The Mineral Surface

551

(1)

13.4.2 Weathering Reactions

551

(2)

13.4.3 Surface Reaction-Controlled Dissolution

553

(2)

13.4.4 Weathering Rates

555

(1)

13.4.5 Aging Reactions

556

(2)

13.5 SORPTION

558

(9)

13.5.1 Surface Functional Groups

558

(3)

13.5.2 Activity-Based Sorption Models

561

(3)

13.5.3 Electrostatic Surface Complexation Models

564

(3)

13.5.4 Adsorption Data

567

(1)

13.6 A UNIFIED APPROACH TO LEACHING

567

(3)

REFERENCES

570

(9)

CHAPTER 14 LEACHING TESTS

579

(28)

14.1 PURPOSE OF LEACHING TESTS

579

(20)

14.1.1 Classification of Leaching Tests

579

(9)

Extraction Tests

580

(1)

Agitated Extraction Tests

581

(1)

Non-agitated Extraction Tests

582

(1)

Sequential Chemical Extraction Tests

583

(1)

Concentration Buildup Tests

584

(1)

Dynamic Tests

584

(1)

Serial Batch Tests

585

(1)

Flow Around Tests

585

(1)

Flow Through Tests

586

(2)

14.1.2 Leaching Test Variables

588

(7)

Sample Preparation

588

(1)

Leachant Composition

589

(2)

Method of Contact

591

(1)

Liquid-to-Solid Ratio

592

(2)

Contact Time

594

(1)

Temperature

594

(1)

Leachate Separation

595

(1)

14.1.3 Compilation of Leaching Tests

595

(4)

14.2 A UNIFIED APPROACH TO LEACHING TESTS

599

(7)

REFERENCES

606

(1)

CHAPTER 15 LEACHING MODELLING

607

(30)

15.1 EQUILIBRIUM MODELS

607

(21)

15.1.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium Models

608

(1)

15.1.2 Use of the Geochemical Thermodynamic Equilibrium Model MINTEQA2

609

(2)

15.1.3 Verification of MINTEQA2

611

(4)

15.1.4 Recommendations for Utilising MINTEQA2 to Model Leaching Behaviour

615

(2)

15.1.5 Modelling L S, pH, and Redox Control of Leaching

617

(2)

15.1.6 Modelling L S, pH, Redox and Complexation Control of Leaching

619

(2)

15.1.7 Modelling Sorption Reactions Influencing Leaching

621

(1)

15.1.8 Modelling Solid Phase Control of Leaching in Conjunction with Solid Phase Speciation Studies

621

(5)

15.1.9 Modelling Solid Phase Control of Leaching in Dynamic Flow-Through Systems

626

(1)

15.1.10 Modelling Field Leaching Behaviour

627

(1)

15.2 DYNAMIC MULTICOMPONENT MODELS

628

(5)

15.2.1 Dynamic Multicomponent Models

628

(4)

15.2.2 Modelling Solid Phase Dissolution

632

(1)

15.2.3 Modelling Solid Phase Reprecipitation and Solubility Control

632

(1)

15.3 FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN MODELLING

633

(1)

REFERENCES

634

(3)

CHAPTER 16 LEACHING DATA

637

(98)

16.1 INTRODUCTION

637

(1)

16.1.1 Overview

637

(1)

16.1.2 Data Sources

637

(1)

16.1.3 Data Transformation

638

(1)

16.2 TOTAL SOLUBLE FRACTION AND AVAILABILITY OF ELEMENTS

638

(4)

16.2.1 Total Soluble Fraction

638

(1)

16.2.2 Total Availability

639

(2)

16.2.3 Sequential Chemical Extractions

641

(1)

16.3 SOLUBILITY AND RELEASE OF ELEMENTS

642

(16)

16.3.1 Bottom Ash

646

(7)

Arsenic

648

(2)

Cadmium

650

(1)

Chromium

650

(1)

Copper

650

(1)

Molybdenum

650

(3)

Nickel

653

(1)

Lead

653

(1)

Zinc

653

(1)

16.3.2 APC Residues

653

(5)

Boron

653

(4)

Barium

657

(1)

Cadmium

657

(1)

Chromium

657

(1)

Copper

657

(1)

Mercury

657

(1)

Molybdenum

657

(1)

Lead

657

(1)

Zinc

657

(1)

16.4 GEOCHEMICAL MODELLING OF LEACHING EQUILIBRIA

658

(12)

16.4.1 Bottom Ash

659

(9)

Calcium and Sulphate

659

(1)

Magnesium

659

(1)

Silicon

659

(3)

Aluminium

662

(1)

Iron

662

(1)

Manganese

662

(1)

Sodium, Potassium, Bromide and Chloride

663

(1)

Cadmium

663

(1)

Copper

663

(3)

Molybdenum

666

(1)

Lead

666

(1)

Zinc

666

(2)

16.4.2 Modelling of APC Residue Leachability

668

(1)

16.4.3 Application of Geochemical Modelling Results

668

(2)

16.5 RELEASE RATES OF ELEMENTS

670

(14)

16.5.1 Release As A Function Of Liquid To Solid Ratio

671

(11)

Bottom Ash

673

(6)

APC Residues

679

(3)

16.5.2 Diffusion Controlled Release

682

(2)

16.6 RESIDUE LEACHING IN THE CONTEXT OF REGULATORY LEACHING TESTS AND WASTE FROM OTHER SOURCES

684

(16)

16.6.1 Regulatory Tests and pH Dependent Leaching

684

(3)

German DIN 38414 (1984) and French AFNOR X-31-210 (1988)

684

(2)

Japanese Leaching Test

686

(1)

Swiss TVA (1988)

686

(1)

USA, California WET Test

686

(1)

US EP Toxicity Test (1980), the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) (1990) and the Regulation 309 (now 347) Leach Procedure

686

(1)

Alternative Approach

687

(1)

16.6.2 Systematic Leaching Behaviour Among Different Incinerator Residues Streams And Other Wastes

687

(13)

16.7 LEACHING OF ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS

700

(2)

16.8 EFFECTS OF INCINERATOR OPERATION ON LEACHING

702

(11)

16.8.1 Combustion Efficiency (Burn out) and Facility Operation

702

(1)

16.8.2 Waste Feed Composition

702

(6)

16.8.3 Seasonal Variations In Leaching

708

(3)

Copper

708

(3)

Molybdenum

711

(1)

Nickel

711

(1)

Lead

711

(1)

Zinc

711

(1)

16.8.4 Quench Water Quality

711

(2)

16.9 EFFECTS OF RESIDUE PROCESSING AND MANAGEMENT ON LEACHING

713

(15)

16.9.1 Size-Reduction And Size Fractionation

713

(5)

16.9.2 Storage And Aging

718

(4)

16.9.3 Comparison Of Laboratory Data To Field Measurements

722

(6)

REFERENCES

728

(7)

CHAPTER 17 SEPARATION PROCESSES

735

(28)

17.1 DEFINITION OF PROCESS

735

(1)

17.2 PHYSICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

736

(5)

17.2.1 On-site Separation

737

(2)

Bottom Ash

737

(1)

Fly Ash and APC Residues

738

(1)

17.2.2 Metal Separation from Bottom Ashes

739

(2)

17.3 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND CHEMICAL SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

741

(18)

17.3.1 Washing Processes

741

(4)

Principles

741

(1)

Bottom Ashes

741

(2)

Air Pollution Control Residues

743

(2)

17.3.2 Acid Leaching

745

(4)

Bottom Ash

745

(1)

Filter and Boiler Ashes

746

(3)

17.3.3 Ion Exchange

749

(2)

Principles and Results

749

(2)

17.3.4 Hg Recovery from Flue Gas Scrubbing Solutions

751

(1)

17.3.5 Crystallisation Evaporation

751

(4)

Principles and Results

751

(1)

NaCI Production

751

(1)

CaCI(2) Production from Dry Semidry APC System Residues

752

(1)

Gypsum Production

752

(3)

17.3.6 HCI Recovery by Distillation

755

(1)

Principles and Results

755

(1)

Proposed Processes

755

(1)

17.3.7 Electrochemical Processes

755

(4)

Principles and Results

755

(3)

Chlorine Recovery

758

(1)

REFERENCES

759

(4)

CHAPTER 18 SOLIDIFICATION & STABILISATION

763

(28)

18.1 DEFINITION OF PROCESS

763

(1)

18.2 EFFECTS OF SOLIDIFICATION STABILISATION

764

(3)

18.2.1 Physical Changes

764

(2)

18.2.2 Chemical Changes

766

(1)

18.3 EVALUATION OF SOLIDIFICATION STABILISATION PROCESSES

767

(9)

18.3.1 Physical Tests

771

(2)

18.3.2 Chemical and Leaching Tests

773

(2)

18.3.3 Other Factors

775

(1)

18.4 REVIEW OF AVAILABLE PROCESSES

776

(12)

18.4.1 Stabilisation Without Additives

776

(1)

18.4.2 Solidification Stabilisation with Binders

777

(8)

Cement-Based Systems

777

(3)

Examples

780

(2)

Waste Pozzolanic Systems

782

(1)

Chemical Stabilisation

783

(2)

18.4.3 Stabilisation With Organic Additives

785

(1)

18.4.4 Macro-Encapsulation

786

(1)

18.4.5 Costs

786

(2)

REFERENCES

788

(3)

CHAPTER 19 THERMAL TREATMENT

791

(50)

19.1 DEFINITIONS

791

(2)

19.1.1 Vitrification

791

(1)

19.1.2 Fusion

792

(1)

19.2 GLASS COMPOSITION AND METALS RETENTION IN GLASS MATRICES

793

(10)

19.2.1 Glass Structure

793

(3)

19.2.2 Constituent Retention Mechanisms

796

(3)

19.2.3 Chemical Attack and Leaching Mechanisms

799

(2)

19.2.4 Factors Influencing Vitrified Ash Leaching

801

(2)

Chemical Composition

801

(1)

Waste Loading

801

(1)

Temperature

801

(1)

Time

802

(1)

19.3 PROCESSING

803

(1)

19.3.1 Processing Equipment

803

(1)

19.3.2 Energy Requirements and Costs

803

(1)

19.4 THERMAL TREATMENT PROCESSES UNDER DEVELOPMENT

803

(2)

19.4.1 Overview of Reported Processes

803

(2)

19.5 VITRIFICATION

805

(12)

19.5.1 Vitrification of APC Residues by Corning, Inc

811

(6)

19.6 FUSION

817

(13)

19.6.1 Fusion of Filter Ash by ABB Deglor Process

819

(3)

19.6.2 Japanese Fusion Processes

822

(8)

19.7 SINTERING

830

(6)

19.7.1 Integrated RDF Combustion with Sintered Aggregate Production (Neutralysis Process)

832

(4)

REFERENCES

836

(5)

CHAPTER 20 LEACHING OF PRODUCTS

841

(54)

20.1 INTRODUCTION

841

(1)

20.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FACTORS WHICH EFFECT CONSTITUENT RELEASE

842

(1)

20.3 TEST METHODS FOR MONOLITHIC AND COMPACTED GRANULAR PRODUCTS

843

(2)

20.3.1 ANS 16.1

844

(1)

20.3.2 NEN 7345

844

(1)

20.3.3 Compacted Granular Leach Test

845

(1)

20.4 INTERPRETATION OF DIFFUSION CONTROLLED RELEASE

845

(15)

20.4.1 Characteristic Release Behaviours

845

(3)

Diffusion Controlled Release

845

(1)

Depletion of Leachable Species

845

(2)

Delayed Release

847

(1)

Surface Wash-Off

847

(1)

Wash-Out of Mobile Species (Dissolution)

847

(1)

Change in Chemical Conditions

847

(1)

20.4.2 Definition of Leaching Parameters

848

(6)

20.4.3 Calculation of Effective Diffusion Coefficients from Cumulative Release Data

854

(4)

20.4.4 Alternative Release Models for Monolithic Materials

858

(2)

20.5. RELEASE FROM PRODUCTS CONTAINING INCINERATOR RESIDUES

860

(18)

20.5.1 Total Availability

860

(1)

20.5.2 Effective Diffusion Coefficients, Physical Retention and Chemical Retention

861

(13)

Copper

861

(1)

Cadmium

861

(2)

Lead

863

(1)

Zinc

863

(1)

Sodium, Sulphate and Chloride

863

(11)

20.5.3 Solubility

874

(4)

20.6 INTEGRATED INTERPRETATION OF pD(e) AND AVAILABILITY

878

(15)

Cadmium

887

(1)

Copper

887

(1)

Lead

887

(3)

Zinc

890

(1)

Sodium

890

(1)

Chloride

890

(3)

REFERENCES

893

(2)

CHAPTER 21 UTILISATION

895

(36)

21.1 INTRODUCTION

895

(1)

21.2 CURRENT AND PLANNED PROJECTS

896

(5)

21.2.1 Canada

896

(1)

21.2.2 Denmark

896

(1)

21.2.3 Germany

897

(1)

21.2.4 The Netherlands

897

(1)

21.2.5 Sweden

898

(1)

21.2.6 United States

899

(2)

21.3 CURRENT REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

901

(13)

21.3.1 Denmark

902

(3)

21.3.2 Germany

905

(1)

21.3.3 The Netherlands

905

(6)

21.3.4 Sweden

911

(1)

21.3.5 United States

911

(3)

21.4 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS

914

(2)

21.5 UTILISATION LIFE CYCLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

916

(10)

21.5.1 Ash Type Selection and Elements of Concern

916

(1)

21.5.2 Ash Generation

917

(1)

21.5.3 Physical Processing

918

(1)

21.5.4 Stockpiling

918

(1)

21.5.5 Manufacturing

919

(1)

21.5.6 Use Applications

919

(7)

Examples

922

(4)

21.5.7 Reuse and Disposal

926

(1)

21.5.8 Economic Considerations

926

(1)

REFERENCES

926

(5)

CHAPTER 22 DISPOSAL

931

22.1 INTRODUCTION

931

(1)

22.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF INCINERATOR RESIDUE LANDFILL LEACHATES

932

(8)

22.2.1 Overview of Incinerator Residue Leachability

932

(2)

22.2.2 Bottom Ash Leachate

934

(3)

22.2.3 Fly Ash and Acid Gas Scrubbing Residue Leachate

937

(3)

22.2.4 Combined Ash Leachate

940

(1)

22.3 DISPOSAL STRATEGIES

940

(10)

22.3.1 General Philosophy

941

(6)

Lifetime of Active Systems

942

(1)

Waste Properties

943

(2)

Adaptation of Landfill Design, Operation and Siting to Strategy and Waste Types

945

(1)

Ultimate Fate of the Leachate

946

(1)

22.3.2 General Disposal Strategies

947

(3)

Total Containment or Entombment

948

(1)

Containment and Collection of Leachate

948

(2)

Controlled Contaminant Release

950

(1)

Unrestricted Leaching

950

(1)

22.4 DESIGN AND OPERATIONS ISSUES

950

(7)

22.4.1 Siting

951

(1)

22.4.2 Liners and Leachate Collection Systems

951

(2)

22.4.3 Caps and Top Covers

953

(1)

22.4.4 Geotechnical Stability

953

(1)

22.4.5 Abatement of Noise, Odour and Fugitive Dust Problems

954

(1)

22.4.6 Monitoring of Leachate Quantity and Quality

954

(1)

22.4.7 Monitoring of Groundwater and Surface Water Quality

955

(2)

22.4.8 Leachate Treatment

957

(1)

22.5 DISPOSAL PRACTICES

957

(2)

22.6 DISPOSAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INCINERATOR RESIDUES

959

(3)

22.6.1 Bottom Ash

960

(1)

22.6.2 APC Residues (Fly Ash and Acid Gas Scrubbing Residues)

961

(1)

22.6.3 Combined Ash

962

(1)

REFERENCES

962

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Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator Residues

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials