Physics, the Human Adventure

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ISBN: 9780813529080 | 0813529085
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 3/1/2001

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Physics, the Human Adventure is the third edition of the classic text Introduction to Concepts and Theories in Physical Science. Authored by Gerald Holton, the text was a landmark in science education. It was the first modern textbook in physics (or in any other science) to make full and effective use of the history and philosophy of science in presenting for both the general and the science-oriented student an account of the nature of physical science. A second edition, prepared by Stephen G. Brush, brought the book up to date by increasing the coverage of topics in modern physics and by taking account of recent scholarly research in the history of science.

In the new book Physics, The Human Adventure, each of the chapters has been reworked to further clarify the physics concepts and to incorporate recent physical advances and research. The book shows the unifying power of science by bringing in connections to chemistry, astronomy, and geoscience. In short, the aid of the new edition is to teach good physics while presenting physical science as a human adven

Preface

xiii

PART A The Origins of Scientific Cosmology

The Astronomy of Ancient Greece

(14)

The Motions of Stars, Suns, and Planets

(2)

Plato's Problem

(1)

The Aristotelian System

(2)

How Big Is the Earth?

(2)

The Heliocentric Theory

(1)

Modified Geocentric Theories

(3)

The Success of the Ptolemaic System

(3)

Copernicus' Heliocentric Theory

(10)

Europe Reborn

(1)

The Copernican System

(5)

Bracing the System

(1)

The Opposition to Copernicus's Theory

(2)

Historic Consequences

(2)

On the Nature of Scientific Theory

(13)

The Purpose of Theories

(3)

The Problem of Change: Atomism

(1)

Theories of Vision

(4)

Criteria for a Good Theory in Physical Science

(5)

Kepler's Laws

(10)

The Life of Johannes Kepler

(1)

Kepler's First Law

(2)

Kepler's Second Law

(2)

Kepler's Third Law

(1)

Kepler's Theory of Vision

(1)

The New Concept of Physical Law

(3)

Galileo and the New Astronomy

(13)

The Life of Galileo

(2)

The Telescopic Evidences for the Copernican System

(2)

Toward a Physical Basis for the Heliocentric System

(4)

Science and Freedom

(5)

PART B The Study of Motion

Mathematics and the Description of Motion

(14)

Rene Descartes

(2)

Constant Velocity

(2)

The Concept of Average Speed

(1)

Instantaneous Speed

(2)

Acceleration

(2)

Oresme's Graphical Proof of the Mean-speed Theorem

(1)

Equations of Motion for Constant Acceleration

(4)

Galileo and the Kinematics of Free Fall

(11)

Introduction

(1)

Aristotelian Physics

(2)

Galileo's Two New Sciences

(3)

Galileo's Study of Accelerated Motion

(5)

Projectile Motion

(15)

Projectile with Initial Horizontal Motion

(3)

Introduction to Vectors

(2)

The General Case of Projectile Motion

(3)

Applications of the Law of Projectile Motion

(1)

Galileo's Conclusions

(2)

Summary

(4)

PART C Newton's Laws and His System of the World

Newton's Laws of Motion

103

(20)

Science in the Seventeenth Century

103

(1)

A Short Sketch of Newton's Life

104

(1)

Newton's Principia

105

(3)

Newton's First Law of Motion

108

(1)

Newton's Second Law of Motion

109

(2)

Standard of Mass

111

(1)

Weight

112

(2)

The Equal-Arm Balance

114

(1)

Inertial and Gravitational Mass

115

(1)

Examples and Applications of Newton's Second Law of Motion

116

(2)

Newton's Third Law of Motion

118

(1)

Examples and Applications of Newton's Third Law

119

(4)

Rotational Motion

123

(8)

Kinematics of Uniform Circular Motion

123

(2)

Centripetal Acceleration

125

(2)

Derivation of the Formula for Centripetal Acceleration and Force

127

(1)

The Earth's Centripetal Acceleration and Absolute Distances in the Solar System

128

(3)

Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

131

(26)

Derivation of the Law of Universal Gravitation

131

(4)

Gravitation Planets and Kepler's Third Law

135

(1)

The Cavendish Experiment: The Constant of Gravitation

136

(2)

The Masses of the Earth, Sun, and Planets

138

(1)

Some Influences on Newton's Work

139

(1)

Some Consequences of the Law of Universal Gravitation

140

(4)

The Discovery of New Planets Using Newton's Theory of Gravity

144

(2)

Bode's Law: An Apparent Regularity in the Positions of the Planets

146

(3)

Gravity and the Galaxies

149

(2)

``I Do Not Feign Hypotheses''

151

(2)

Newton's Place in Modern Science

153

(4)

PART D Structure and Method in Physical Science

On the Nature of Concepts

157

(13)

Introduction: The Search for Constancies in Change

157

(1)

Science and Nonscience

158

(1)

The Lack of a Single Method

159

(2)

Physical Concepts: Measurement and Definition

161

(2)

Physically Meaningless Concepts and Statements

163

(1)

Primary and Secondary Qualities

164

(1)

Mathematical Law and Abstraction

165

(2)

Explanation

167

(3)

On the Duality and Growth of Science

170

(17)

The Free License of Creativity

170

(1)

``Private'' Science and ``Public'' Science

171

(1)

The Natural Selection of Physical Concepts

172

(2)

Motivation

174

(2)

Objectivity

176

(1)

Fact and Interpretation

177

(1)

How Science Grows

178

(2)

Consequences of the Model

180

(7)

On the Discovery of Laws

187

(16)

Opinions on Scientific Procedure

187

(4)

A Sequence of Elements in Formulations of Laws

191

(4)

The Limitations of Physical Law

195

(2)

The Content of Science: Summary

197

(6)

PART E The Laws of Conservation

The Law of Conservation of Mass

203

(6)

Prelude to the Conservation Law

203

(1)

Steps Toward a Formulation

203

(1)

Lavoisier's Experimental Proof

204

(2)

Is Mass Really Conserved?

206

(3)

The Law of Conservation of Momentum

209

(10)

Introduction

209

(1)

Definition of Momentum

210

(2)

Momentum and Newton's Laws of Motion

212

(1)

Examples Involving Collisions

213

(2)

Examples Involving Explosions

215

(1)

Further Examples

215

(1)

Does Light Have Momentum?

216

(1)

Angular Momentum

217

(2)

The Law of Conservation of Energy

219

(32)

Christiaan Huygens and the Kinetic Energy (Vis Viva) Concept

219

(3)

Preliminary Questions: The Pile Driver

222

(1)

The Concept of Work

223

(1)

Various Forms of Energy

224

(2)

The Conservation Law: First Form and Applications

226

(3)

Extensions of the Conservation Law

229

(5)

Historical Background of the Generalized Law of Conservation of Energy: The Nature of Heat

234

(5)

Mayer's Discovery of Energy Conservation

239

(3)

Joule's Experiments on Energy Conservation

242

(3)

General Illustration of the Law of Conservation of Energy

245

(2)

Conservation Laws and Symmetry

247

(4)

The Law of Dissipation of Energy

251

(14)

Newton's Rejection of the ``Newtonian World Machine''

251

(2)

The Problem of the Cooling of the Earth

253

(3)

The Second Law of Thermodynamics and the Dissipation of Energy

256

(3)

Entropy and the Heat Death

259

(6)

PART F Origins of the Atomic Theory in Physics and Chemistry

The Physics of Gases

265

(10)

The Nature of Gases---Early Concepts

265

(2)

Air Pressure

267

(3)

The General Gas Law

270

(2)

Two Gas Models

272

(3)

The Atomic Theory of Chemistry

275

(21)

Chemical Elements and Atoms

275

(1)

Dalton's Model of Gases

276

(2)

Properties of Dalton's Chemical Atom

278

(1)

Dalton's Symbols for Representing Atoms

279

(1)

The Law of Definite Proportions

280

(1)

Dalton's Rule of Simplicity

281

(1)

The Early Achievements of Dalton's Theory

282

(2)

Gay-Lussac's Law of Combining Volumes of Reacting Gases

284

(1)

Avogadro's Model of Gases

285

(3)

An Evaluation of Avogadro's Theory

288

(1)

Chemistry After Avogadro: The Concept of Valence

289

(3)

Molecular Weights

292

(4)

The Periodic Table of Elements

296

(12)

The Search for Regularity in the List of Elements

296

(1)

The Early Periodic Table of Elements

297

(4)

Consequences of the Periodic Law

301

(2)

The Modern Periodic Table

303

(5)

The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases

308

(33)

Introduction

308

(2)

Some Qualitative Successes of the Kinetic-Molecular Theory

310

(1)

Model of a Gas and Assumptions in the Kinetic Theory

311

(4)

The Derivation of the Pressure Formula

315

(3)

Consequences and Verification of the Kinetic Theory

318

(4)

The Distribution of Molecular Velocities

322

(5)

Additional Results and Verifications of the Kinetic Theory

327

(2)

Specific Heats of Gases

329

(4)

The Problem of Irreversibility in the Kinetic Theory: Maxwell's Demon

333

(3)

The Recurrence Paradox

336

(5)

PART G Light and Electromagnetism

The Wave Theory of Light

341

(11)

Therories of Refraction and the Speed of Light

341

(3)

The Propagation of Periodic Waves

344

(3)

The Wave Theory of Young and Fresnel

347

(3)

Color

350

(2)

Electrostatics

352

(17)

Introduction

352

(1)

Electrification by Friction

352

(1)

Law of Conservation of Charge

353

(1)

A Modern Model for Electrification

353

(1)

Insulators and Conductors

354

(2)

The Electroscope

356

(1)

Coulomb's Law of Electrostatics The Electrostatic Field

357

(2)

The Electrostatic Field

359

(2)

Lines of Force

361

(1)

Electric Potential Difference-- Qualitative Discussion

362

(1)

Potential Difference---Quantitative Discussion

363

(1)

Uses of the Concept of Potential

364

(1)

Electrochemistry

365

(1)

Atomicity of Charge

366

(3)

Electromagnetism, X-Rays, and Electrons

369

(19)

Introduction

369

(1)

Currents and Magnets

369

(5)

Electromagnetic Waves and Ether

374

(3)

Hertz's Experiments

377

(2)

Cathode Rays

379

(3)

X-rays and the Turn of the Century

382

(3)

The ``Discovery of the Electron''

385

(3)

The Quantum Theory of Light

388

(21)

Continuous Emission Spectra

388

(3)

Planck's Empirical Emission Formula

391

(1)

The Quantum Hypothesis

392

(4)

The Photoelectric Effect

396

(2)

Einstein's Photon Theory

398

(2)

The Photon-Wave Dilemma

400

(2)

Applications of the Photon Concept

402

(1)

Quantization in Science

403

(6)

PART H The Atom and the Universe in Modern Physics

Radioactivity and the Nuclear Atom

409

(18)

Early Research on Radioactivity and Isotopes

409

(4)

Radioactive Half-Life

413

(2)

Radioactive Series

415

(2)

Rutherford's Nuclear Model

417

(5)

Moseley's X-Ray Spectra

422

(2)

Further Concepts of Nuclear Structure

424

(3)

Bohr's Model of the Atom

427

(19)

Line Emission Spectra

427

(1)

Absorption Line Spectra

428

(4)

Balmer's Formula

432

(2)

Niels Bohr and the Problem of Atomic Structure

434

(1)

Energy Levels in Hydrogen Atoms

435

(6)

Further Developments

441

(5)

Quantum Mechanics

446

(16)

Recasting the Foundations of Physics Once More

446

(1)

The Wave Nature of Matter

447

(4)

Knowledge and Reality in Quantum Mechanics

451

(5)

Systems of Identical Particles

456

(6)

Einstein's Theory of Relativity

462

(25)

Biographical Sketch of Albert Einstein

462

(2)

The FitzGerald-Lorentz Contraction

464

(3)

Einstein's Formulation (1905)

467

(1)

Galilean Transformation Equations

468

(2)

The Relativity of Simultaneity

470

(2)

The Relativistic (Lorentz) Transformation Equations

472

(2)

Consequences and Examples

474

(1)

The Equivalence of Mass and Energy

474

(3)

Relativistic Quantum Mechanics

477

(3)

The General Theory of Relativity

480

(7)

The Origin of the Solar System and the Expanding Universe

487

(12)

The Nebular Hypothesis

487

(2)

Planetesimal and Tidal Theories

489

(2)

Revival of Monistic Theories After 1940

491

(3)

Nebulae and Galaxies

494

(1)

The Expanding Universe

495

(1)

Lemaitre's Primeval Atom

496

(3)

Construction of the Elements and the Universe

499

(18)

Nuclear Physics in the 1930s

499

(4)

Formation of the Elements in Stars

503

(3)

Fission and the Atomic Bomb

506

(3)

Big Bang or Steady State?

509

(3)

Discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Radiation

512

(1)

Beyond the Big Bang

513

(4)

Thematic Elements and Styles in Science

517

(38)

The Thematic Elements in Science

517

(3)

Themata in the History of Science

520

(2)

Styles of Thought in Science and Culture

522

(3)

Epilogue

525

(6)

APPENDIXES

Appendix I Abbreviations and Symbols

531

(4)

Appendix II Metric System Prefixes, Greek Alphabet, Roman Numerals

535

(2)

Appendix III Defined Values, Fundamental Constants and Astronomical Data

537

(2)

Appendix IV Conversion Factors

539

(2)

Appendix V Systems of Units

541

(2)

Appendix VI Alphabetic List of the Elements

543

(2)

Appendix VII Periodic Table of Elements

545

(2)

Appendix VIII Summary of Some Trigonometric Relations

547

(4)

Appendix IX Vector Algebra

551

(4)

General Bibliography

555

(4)

Credits

559

(2)

Index

561

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Physics, the Human Adventure

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials