Plant Biology

, by Graham, Linda E.; Graham, Jim M.; Wilcox, Lee W.

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ISBN: 9780131469068 | 0131469061
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 3/15/2005

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Key Benefit:For non-majors and mixed-majors introductory botany (plant biology) courses. Plant Biologyfocuses readers on the function of plants and the role they play in our world. With evolved content and a new organization, the authors emphasize the scientific method to help readers develop the critical thinking skills they need to make sound decisions throughout life. Together, the emphasis on how plants work and the development of critical-thinking skills support the authorsrs" goal of fostering scientific literacy. Key Topics:Introduction to Plant Biology, Plants and People, Molecules and Plants, Cells, Photosynthesis and Respiration, DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis, Cell Division: Mitosis and Cytokinesis, Plant Structure, Growth, and Development, Stems, Roots, Leaves, Plant Behavior, Reproduction, Meiosis, and Life Cycles, Genetics and the Laws of Inheritance, Genetic Engineering, Biological Evolution, Naming and Organizing Microbes, Viruses, and Plants, Prokaryotes and the Origin of Life, Protists and the Origin of Eukaryotic Cells, Fungi and Lichens, Seedless Plants: Bryophytes, Lycophytes, and Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and the Origin of Seeds, Angiosperm Reproduction: Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds, Flowering Plant and Animal Coevolution: Pollination and Seed Dispersal, Principles of Ecology and the Biosphere, Arid Terrestrial Ecosystems, Moist Terrestrial Ecosystems, Aquatic Ecosystems, Human Impacts and Sustainability Market Description:For those interested in learning the basics of plant biology

Preface

xxvii

Part 1 Introduction

Introduction to Plant Biology

(16)

What are plants?

(1)

Bacteria, fungi, and algae are important to plant life

(2)

Plants and other organisms have scientific names

(1)

Scientific methods are used to learn about nature

(2)

Science has an error-correction capacity

(1)

The process of science may be inductive or deductive

(1)

Plants and associated organisms play essential roles in maintaining Earth's environment

(5)

Plants, algae, fungi, and bacteria help maintain Earth's atmospheric chemistry and climate

(1)

Plants benefit from close associations with other organisms

(1)

Food webs

(1)

Beneficial symbioses

(3)

Coevolution

(1)

Plants, protists, fungi, and bacteria are important in human affairs

(3)

Essay 1.1 Devilish Dodder

(8)

Essay 1.2 Global Warming: Too Much of a Good Thing

(4)

Highlights

(1)

Review Questions

(1)

Applying Concepts

(1)

Plants and People

(14)

Ethnobotany and economic botany focus on human uses of plants

(1)

The origin of agriculture was key to development of civilizations

(6)

How can we know something about the origins of agriculture?

(2)

When and why did agriculture originate?

(1)

Where were plants first domesticated?

(1)

Ecological adaptations are responsible for the useful features of cereals and legumes

(2)

How were cereals and legumes domesticated?

(1)

Food plant genetic resources and traditional agricultural knowledge need to be preserved

(3)

Natural plant products are useful to humans as medicine and in other ways

(3)

Plants are sources of medicine and dietary supplements

(1)

Plants are sources of psychoactive drugs

Essay 2.1 Ethnobotany: Seeds of Culture

(7)

Essay 2.2 Chocolate: It Does a Body---and the Ecosystem---Good!

(3)

Highlights

(1)

Review Questions

(1)

Applying Concepts

(1)

Part 2 Plant Structure and Function

Molecules of Life

(26)

All physical matter is made up of elements composed of distinct atoms

(2)

Plants contain and require more of some elements than others

(1)

Atoms are made up of three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons

(1)

Every element has an atomic number and a mass number

(1)

Several types of bonds link atoms to form molecules

(2)

Ionic bonds form when atoms gain or lose electrons

(1)

Acids and bases contain ionic bonds

(1)

In covalent bonds, two or more atoms share electrons

(1)

Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between molecules

(1)

Water has unique properties because it forms hydrogen bonds

(1)

Four types of primary compounds are the molecules of life

(14)

Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and cellulose

(2)

Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids

(2)

Proteins are large molecules composed of amino acids

(3)

Storage proteins are important in human nutrition

(1)

Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts

(2)

Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA are composed of nucleotides

(3)

Plants produce a wide range of secondary compounds

(6)

Terpenes and terpenoids repel insects

(1)

Phenolics have antiseptic properties and flavonoids color many flowers and fruits

(2)

Many alkaloids are widely used as medicines

Essay 3.1 Molecules: Keys to the Search for Extraterrestrial Life

(16)

Highlights

(1)

Review Questions

(1)

Applying Concepts

(2)

Cells

(22)

Organisms are composed of one to many microscopic cells

(1)

Microscopes are used to study cells

(3)

Light microscopes use glass lenses and visible light to enlarge images

(1)

Electron microscopes use magnetic lenses to focus beams of electrons

(2)

Two major types of cells are eukaryotic cells and prokakryotic cells

(10)

Cell membranes, cytoplasm, and ribosomes occur in all cells

(1)

The cell membrane functions in communication and transport of materials

(1)

Some cell-membrane proteins perceive environmental information

(1)

Some cell-membrane proteins transport materials into or out of cells

(1)

Selective membrane permeability is the basis for osmosis

(1)

Some plants are adapted to salty environments

(1)

Endocytosis and exocytosis also transport materials across cell membranes

(1)

Eukaryotic cells share some features that prokaryotes lack

(1)

Nuclei contain most of the eukaryotic cell's genetic information

(1)

The endomembrane system constructs and transports cell materials

(2)

The endoplasmic reticulum

(1)

The Golgi apparatus

(1)

The cytoskeleton and associated motor proteins generate cell movements

(1)

Cytoskeletal components

(1)

Types of motor proteins

(1)

Flagella

(1)

Mitochondria are major cellular sites of chemical energy transformations

(1)

Peroxisomes contain protective enzymes

(1)

Plant cells have the general features of eukaryotic cells and additional components

(7)

Cellulose-rich plant cell walls provide support and protection

(1)

Cellulose

(1)

Noncellulose components of plant cell walls

(1)

Primary and secondary plant cell walls

(1)

Plant cells are connected by plasmodesmata

(1)

Plastids are sites of photosynthesis and other functions

(2)

Starch is formed in plastids of plants and green algae

(1)

Chromoplasts are non-green, pigmented plastids of flowers and fruits

(1)

Vacuoles play several important roles in plant cells

Essay 4.1 Plant ``Psi''chological Stress

(10)

Essay 4.2 Heavy-Metal Plants

(1)

Highlights

(1)

Review Questions

(1)

Applying Concepts

(1)

Photosynthesis and Respiration

(24)

Photosynthesis and respiration are the processes by which living organisms capture solar energy and release it to sustain life on Earth

(1)

Metabolism includes many kinds of chemical reactions organized into series called pathways

(3)

Chemical reactions may be exergonic or endergonic

(1)

Oxidation-reduction reactions are highly important in cell metabolism

(1)

In metabolism, chemical reactions are organized into pathways

(1)

Photosynthesis harvests solar energy to sustain life on Earth

(11)

Photosynthesis changed the early Earth so that multicellular life became possible

(1)

Photosynthesis provides the food and fuel that power life on Earth

(1)

The interaction between light and pigments is crucial to solar energy capture

(1)

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of algae and plants

(2)

Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy stored in sugars

(1)

The light reactions capture solar energy

(3)

Chemiosmosis and photophosphorylation produce ATP molecules in the chloroplast

(1)

The carbon-fixation reactions reduce carbon dioxide to simple sugars

(2)

Photorespiration makes the pathway inefficient

(1)

C4 plants and CAM plants have mechanisms to reduce photorespiration

(1)

C4 plants reduce photorespiration by preconcentrating CO2

(1)

CAM plants reduce photorespiration by fixing CO2 at night

(1)

Respiration and fermentation release energy for cellular metabolism

(8)

Respiration occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of cells

(1)

Glycolysis is the splitting of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate

(1)

Fermentation extracts energy from organic compounds without oxygen

(1)

Pyruvate is split into CO2 and an acetyl group attached to coenzyme A

(1)

In the Krebs cycle, the acetyl group is broken into two carbon dioxide molecules

(1)

The electron transport chain generates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane

100

(1)

Chemiosmosis and oxidative phosphorylation generate ATP in the mitochondrion

100

Essay 5.1 The Botany of Beer

(3)

Highlights

102

(1)

Review Questions

103

(1)

Applying Concepts

103

(1)

DNA and RNA

104

(16)

DNA is a long molecule composed of subunits called nucleotides

106

(1)

DNA contains two nucleotide strands that wind about each other in a double helix

106

(2)

DNA replicates by separating its two strands and synthesizing two new complementary strands

108

(1)

Stability of genetic information depends on efficient mechanisms for DNA

109

(1)

Genetic information is coded in DNA as groups of three nucleotides

110

(1)

Protein synthesis involves three forms of RNA in the cytoplasm

110

(5)

Instructions for protein synthesis is coded in DNA are first transcribed into a coded mRNA molecule

111

(1)

The coded information in mRNA is translated into a protein with the aid of ribosomes and tRNAs

112

(3)

Differences in DNA account for differences among organisms and even among individuals

115

(5)

Essay 6.1 Molecular Detectives: DNA Fingerprinting Solves Crimes

117

(1)

Highlights

118

(1)

Review Questions

118

(1)

Applying Concepts

119

(1)

Cell Division

120

(14)

Cell division and the cell cycle

122

(1)

Division in prokaryotes, mitochondria, and plastids occurs by binary fission

122

(2)

Eukaryotic cells have separate processes of nuclear and cytoplasmic division

124

(10)

Preparation for cell division occurs during interphase

125

(1)

The G1 phase is a period of intense synthesis of molecules and structures

125

(1)

DNA replication occurs during the S phase

125

(1)

The G2 phase completes preparations for cell division

126

(1)

Mitosis consists of four phases

126

(1)

In prophase, chromosomes condense until they appear as sister chromatids

126

(1)

In metaphase, chromosomes align on the equator of the mitotic spindle

127

(1)

Sister chromatids separate in anaphase

128

(1)

In telophase, chromosomes become indistinct

128

(1)

In cytokinesis, cytoplasm is divided between daughter cells

129

(1)

Essay 7.1 When to Stick and When to Split: Mechanisms of Chromosome Cohesion and Separation

130

(2)

Highlights

132

(1)

Review Questions

133

(1)

Applying Concepts

133

(1)

Plant Structure, Growth, and Development

134

(16)

Plant structural variation is ecologically and economically important

136

(1)

Plant bodies are composed of organs, tissues, and many types of cells

136

(8)

Shoots, roots, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds are plant organs or organ systems

136

(1)

Plant organs are composed of tissues whose cells are linked by plasmodesmata

137

(2)

Plants grow by production of new tissues and cell enlargement

139

(1)

Primary apical meristems produce primary tissues

139

(1)

Secondary meristems produce wood and bark

140

(1)

Plants also grow by cell expansion

140

(1)

Plant tissues are composed of one to several cell types

141

(1)

Specialized cells arise by the process of differentiation

142

(2)

Plants develop from single cells or small pieces

144

(6)

Plants can develop from zygotes, spores, or excised pieces

144

(4)

Plant bodies have polarity, radial symmetry, and indeterminate growth

148

Essay 8.1 Supermarket Botany

138

(11)

Highlights

149

(1)

Review Questions

149

(1)

Applying Concepts

149

(1)

Stems and Materials Transport

150

(20)

Stems are fundamental plant organs having multiple functions

152

(1)

The structure of conducting tissues helps explain their functions

152

(10)

Conducting tissues in plants occur in vascular bundles

152

(1)

Living phloem tissues conduct organic compounds in a watery solution

152

(2)

Phloem conducts sugars from their source to the sites of utilization

154

(1)

Dead xylem tissues are structured to facilitate water transport

155

(1)

Water and solutes move through stems as the result of transpiration

155

(2)

Wood and bark arise by the activity of secondary meristems

157

(1)

The vascular cambium produces wood and inner bark

157

(3)

The cork cambium produces a protective covering for older woody stems

160

(1)

Some plants can grow tall without extensive wood

161

(1)

Humans use stems in many ways

162

(8)

Paper

162

(1)

Cork

163

(1)

Bamboo

164

(1)

Wood

164

Essay 9.1 Weird and Wonderful Stems

156

(9)

Essay 9.2 Growth Rings: Mirrors into the Past

165

(4)

Highlights

169

(1)

Review Questions

169

(1)

Applying Concepts

169

(1)

Roots and Plant Nutrition

170

(20)

Roots play a variety of roles in plants

172

(4)

Roots anchor plants and absorb water and minerals

172

(1)

Some roots are useful as human food because they store carbohydrates

172

(1)

Roots are important sites of hormone and secondary compound production in plants

172

(1)

The roots of some plants help support stems

173

(2)

Pneumatophores help provide oxygen to underwater roots of some mangroves

175

(1)

Some plants produce other types of specialized roots

175

(1)

Taproots, fibrous roots, and feeder roots are major types of underground root systems

176

(1)

Root structure and function are intimately related

177

(9)

External root structures include branch roots, root hairs, and the root tip

177

(1)

An internal view of root tissues reveals how root cells grow and specialize

178

(1)

The root apical meristem produces primary tissues

179

(1)

Root cells enlarge and begin to specialize in the zone of elongation

179

(1)

Specialized cells and tissues are present above the zone of maturation

179

(3)

Root mineral absorption is selective and requires energy

182

(1)

Root hairs and endodermal cells are sites of selective absorption

182

(2)

Plant roots require organic food and oxygen and produce carbon dioxide

184

(2)

Plant roots are associated with beneficial microbes

186

(4)

Essay 10.1 The Root of the Matter: Human Uses of Roots

174

(11)

Essay 10.2 Food for Thought: Plant Mineral Nutrition

185

(2)

Highlights

187

(1)

Review Questions

188

(1)

Applying Concepts

189

(1)

Leaves

190

(20)

As photosynthetic organs, leaves occur in a vast range of forms

192

(2)

Most of the variation in leaves is in the form of the blade

192

(1)

Leaves are arranged in distinct patterns on stems

192

(2)

The major tissues of leaves are epidermis, mesophyll, xylem, and phloem

194

(5)

The epidermis provides structural support and retards water loss

195

(2)

Mesophyll is the photosynthetic tissue of leaves

197

(1)

Xylem and phloem are the conducting tissues of leaf veins

198

(1)

Plants lose large quantities of water through transpiration

199

(1)

Stomatal movements control transpiration

199

(1)

Environmental factors can affect stomatal movements

199

(1)

The cohesion-tension theory explains movement of water through plants

200

(2)

Senescence and leaf fall are a normal part of plant development

202

(1)

Autumn leaf abscission is preceded by a period of senescence

202

(1)

Leaf abscission is preceded by formation of an abscission zone

202

(1)

Leaves perform many functions in addition to photosynthesis

203

(2)

Some leaves are specialized for water or food storage

203

(1)

Leaves are modified for defense in some plants

204

(1)

Leaves of some plants capture animal prey

204

(1)

Humans use leaves in many ways

205

(5)

Essay 11.1 Plant Leaves Track CO2 Levels in the Atmosphere

201

(7)

Highlights

208

(1)

Review Questions

208

(1)

Applying Concepts

209

(1)

Plant Behavior

210

(16)

Plants sense and respond to external and internal signals

212

(1)

Hormones regulate plant growth and development

213

(5)

There are several types of plant hormones

213

(1)

Auxins

213

(1)

Cytokinins

213

(2)

Ethylene

215

(1)

Gibberellins

216

(1)

Several plant hormones play protective roles

217

(1)

Plants use pigment-containing molecules to sense their light environments

218

(3)

Phytochrome controls seed and spore germination

219

(1)

Phytochrome helps control the timing of flowering and dormancy

220

(1)

Plant shoots can sense shading and grow into the light

221

(1)

Plants respond to gravity and touch

221

(2)

Plants can respond to flooding, heat, drought, and cold stress

223

(1)

Plants can defend themselves against attack

223

(3)

Essay 12.1 Aspen Aspirin

218

(6)

Highlights

224

(1)

Review Questions

225

(1)

Applying Concepts

225

(1)

Part 3 Plant Reproduction, Genetics, and Evolution

Reproduction, Meiosis, and Life Cycles

226

(18)

Sexual and asexual reproduction confer different advantages

228

(4)

Sexual reproduction accelerates adaptation

228

(1)

Asexual reproduction can occur rapidly

229

(1)

Many organisms that reproduce only asexually evolved from sexually reproducing ancestors

229

(2)

Many organisms reproduce by both asexual and sexual means

231

(1)

Meiosis is essential to sexual reproduction

232

(2)

Meiosis prevents buildup of chromosomes as the result of sexual reproduction over many generations

232

(2)

Meiosis contributes to genetic variability

234

(1)

Meiosis resembles mitosis in some respects, but differs in important ways

234

(3)

Meiosis follows DNA replication and uses a spindle apparatus, as does mitosis

234

(1)

Homologous chromosome pair, then separate during meiosis I

234

(3)

Chromatids are separated during meiosis II

237

(1)

Life cycles link one generation to the next

237

(7)

Gametic life cycles are typical of animals and some algae

237

(2)

Zygotic life cycles are common among protists

239

(1)

Sporic life cycles are characteristic of land plants and some algae

240

Essay 13.1 The Perfect Date

233

(5)

Essay 13.2 The Guardian Spirit

238

(4)

Highlights

242

(1)

Review Questions

243

(1)

Applying Concepts

243

(1)

Genetics and the Laws of Inheritance

244

(20)

Gregor Mendel's experiments with garden peas revealed the pattern of inheritance of genetic traits

246

(4)

Early hypotheses assumed hereditary material blended in the offspring

246

(1)

Mendel's use of garden peas had many advantages

246

(1)

Mendel's experiments focused on seven distinct traits in peas

247

(1)

The F1 generations revealed dominant and recessive traits

248

(1)

The F2 generations had dominant and recessive forms for each trait

249

(1)

Mendel's model of the pattern of inheritance

249

(1)

The testcross revealed the true nature of dominant traits

250

(1)

Mendel's model in terms of genes, alleles, and chromosomes

250

(3)

Variations on Mendelian genetics

253

(2)

In incomplete dominance, the heterozygote has an intermediate phenotype

253

(1)

In pleiotropy, a single gene affects several traits

253

(1)

In polygenic inheritance, several genes combine to affect a single trait

253

(1)

The environment can alter the expression of the phenotype

254

(1)

Genes and chromosomes

255

(9)

In sweet pea, the genes for flower color and pollen shape are on the same chromosome

255

(1)

Genetic maps show the order and position of genes on chromosome

255

(1)

In a dihybrid cross, genes segregate independently if they are on separate chromosomes

256

(1)

Two or more genes interact to produce a trait in epistasis

257

(1)

In some plants, genes located on sex chromosomes determine separate male and female organisms

258

Essay 14.1 Pseudoscience and the Lysenko Affair

252

(8)

Essay 14.2 Hybrid Corn and Hybrid Orchids

260

(1)

Highlights

261

(1)

Review Questions

262

(1)

Applying Concepts

262

(2)

Genetics Engineering

264

(14)

What is genetic engineering?

266

(1)

Genetic engineers use tools that are common in nature

266

(1)

Some genetic engineering tools are derived from bacteria and viruses

266

(1)

Plants contribute other molecular tools

267

(1)

Plant genetic engineering resembles crop breeding but is faster and more versatile

267

(3)

Humans have long altered the genetics of domesticated plants and animals

267

(2)

Genetic engineering overcomes some drawbacks of traditional breeding methods

269

(1)

Bacteria can be genetically engineered to produce useful materials

270

(3)

Restriction enzymes are used to prepare DNA and vectors for cloning

270

(1)

Foreign DNA is ``glued'' into the vector

270

(2)

Modified vectors are incorporated into bacterial cells, which are then grown to large populations

272

(1)

Plants can be genetically engineered

273

(1)

Genetic engineering has produced valued new forms of crops

273

(1)

The roots of some GM crops can more effectively obtain soil phosphate

273

(1)

Plants can be genetically modified to produce new types of starch

274

(1)

GM crops can produce antibody and vaccine proteins for use in human medicine

274

(1)

Genetically engineered crops pose some concerns

274

(4)

Will genetic engineering help solve world food sufficiency problems?

274

(1)

Should foods containing genetically modified crop products be labeled?

275

(1)

Might GM crops have harmful environmental effects?

275

(1)

Evolution of resistance to pest control measures might offset the value of some GM crops

275

(1)

GM crops might have harmful effects on nonpest species

275

(1)

GM crops might poison the natural enemies of crop pests

275

(1)

GM crop plants might interbreed with wild relatives to form ``superweeds''

275

(1)

GM crops pose other environmental concerns

276

Essay 15.1 PCR: The Gene Copier

268

(8)

Highlights

276

(1)

Review Questions

277

(1)

Applying Concepts

277

(1)

Biological Evolution

278

(20)

Pre-Darwinian science held that species were unchanging

280

(1)

Some early biologists proposed that species could evolve

280

(1)

During the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin made observations that revolutionized biology

280

(1)

Over the next two decades, Darwin developed his theory of evolution by natural selection

281

(2)

The theory of evolution by natural selection can be summarized as a series of observations and conclusions

283

(1)

The synthetic theory of evolution combines Darwinism with genetics and molecular biology

283

(1)

Many areas of science provide evidence for evolution

284

(3)

Artificial selection demonstrates that species can be modified

284

(1)

Comparative anatomy reveals many evolutionary relationships

284

(1)

Changes in proteins and DNA trace evolutionary changes

285

(1)

Fossils provide a record of large-scale evolutionary changes

286

(1)

Evolution occurs when forces change allele frequencies in the gene pool of a population

287

(4)

Mutation provides new variation to a gene pool

288

(1)

Nonrandom mating alters the frequency of alleles

289

(1)

In small populations, genetic drift can cause alleles to be lost

289

(1)

Migration causes alleles to flow into or out of a population

289

(1)

Through natural selection, allele frequencies change such that populations become better adapted to their environment

290

(1)

Directional selection

290

(1)

Stabilizing selection

290

(1)

Disruptive selection

290

(1)

New species originate through the development of reproductive isolation

291

(7)

The concept of species is based on genetic isolation

291

(1)

Allopatric speciation requires geographic isolation

292

(1)

Sympatric speciation can occur when polyploidy arises in plants

293

(1)

Microbial species can evolve in the lab

293

(3)

Essay 16.1 Major Beneficial Gene Changes Can Separate Species

296

(1)

Highlights

296

(1)

Review Questions

297

(1)

Applying Concepts

297

(1)

Part 4 Diversity of Plants, Prokaryotes, Protists, and Fungi

Naming and Organizing Plants and Microbes

298

(16)

Scientific names originated with Linnaeus, the father of biological taxonomy and systematics

300

(3)

Each kind of organism has a unique scientific name

300

(1)

Scientific names are structured to provide useful information

300

(1)

There is a correct way to write scientific names

300

(2)

Plant names signify subspecies, varieties, or cultivars

302

(1)

Hybrids have distinctive scientific names

302

(1)

Naming new plants must follow an established procedure

303

(1)

Identifying and archiving plant specimens

303

(4)

Plant collections can be stored as herbarium specimens

303

(3)

Resources for identifying plant include identification keys

306

(1)

Plants and other organisms are classified according to their relationships

307

(7)

Species can be grouped into species complexes, genera, families, orders, classes, phyla, and domains

310

(1)

Plant and microbe classifications change as new discoveries are made

311

Essay 17.1 Viruses---Extreme Minimalists

301

(5)

Essay 17.2 Botanical Gardens: Science and Art All in One!

306

(6)

Highlights

312

(1)

Review Questions

312

(1)

Applying Concepts

313

(1)

Prokaryotes and the Origin of Life on Earth

314

(20)

What is life and why does it occur on Earth?

316

(3)

The Earth's position in space is important to life

318

(1)

Early life changed Earth's atmospheric composition, fostering modern life

318

(1)

When did the Earth form, and when did life first appear?

319

(1)

A period of bombardment preceded the establishment of life

319

(1)

How did life originate?

320

(2)

The chemical-biological theory explains the origin of life as a series of stages

320

(1)

Organic compounds can be formed from inorganic molecules

320

(1)

Macromolecules can form from simple organic compounds

321

(1)

Macromolecules in water can form cell-like structures

321

(1)

Bacteria and Archaea are Earth's smallest, simplest life-forms

322

(6)

Prokaryote bodies are smaller and simpler than those of eukaryotes

322

(1)

Prokaryotic cells are relatively simple in structure

322

(1)

Prokaryotic DNA

322

(1)

Prokaryotic enzymes

323

(1)

Other cell components

323

(1)

Some prokaryotes can swim or glide

324

(1)

Slimy polysaccharides often coat prokaryote surfaces

324

(1)

Prokaryote cell walls differ in structure and chemistry

325

(1)

Peptidoglycan forms part of bacterial cell walls

325

(1)

The Gram stain is useful in describing bacteria and predicting responses to antibiotics

325

(1)

Prokaryotes reproduce primarily by binary fission

326

(1)

Many prokaryotes survive harsh conditions as tough spores

326

(1)

Prokaryotes lack sex, but can exchange DNA

327

(1)

Prokaryotic diversity is important in nature and human affairs

328

(6)

Proteobacteria are related to eukaryotic mitochondria

329

(1)

Cyanobacteria are related to eukaryotic plastids

329

(1)

Gram-positive bacteria include important disease agents and antibiotic producers

329

(1)

Prokaryotic nutrition is ecologically important

329

(1)

Prokaryotes have useful applications in human affairs

330

(1)

Agricultural applications

330

(1)

Industrial applications

331

(1)

Environmental remediation and monitoring

331

Essay 18.1 Did Life Evolve on Mars?

317

(14)

Highlights

331

(1)

Review Questions

332

(1)

Applying Concepts

333

(1)

Protists and the Origin of Eukaryotic Cells

334

(24)

What are protists and where do they occur?

336

(2)

How can protists be distinguished from plants, fungi, and animals?

336

(1)

Microscopes must be used to observe most protists

337

(1)

Protists are common and numerous in aquatic and moist habitats

337

(1)

Microscopic protists move in several ways

337

(1)

Protists include diverse groups whose relationships are not completely known

338

(7)

Algal diversity reflects the occurrence of key evolutionary events

345

(3)

Mitochondria are derived from endosymbiotic proteobacteria

346

(1)

Primary plastids originated from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria

347

(1)

Protist nutritional variation explains diverse ecological roles

348

(1)

Structural and reproductive adaptations aid in protist survival

349

(5)

Cell coverings

349

(1)

Organic food storage

350

(1)

Asexual reproduction

350

(1)

Sexual reproduction

350

(4)

Algae have useful biotechnological applications

354

(4)

Industrial and food products

354

(1)

Water quality improvement systems

355

(1)

Laboratory model systems

355

Essay 19.1 It's Not Easy Being Non-green: Parasitic Algae

340

(3)

Essay 19.2 Killer Algae

343

(13)

Highlights

356

(1)

Review Questions

356

(1)

Applying Concepts

357

(1)

Fungi and Lichens

358

(18)

Fungi are eukaryotes with distinctive cell walls and bodies

360

(1)

Fungal nutrition is absorptive

360

(2)

Major fungal groups differ in reproduction

362

(2)

Sexual spores allow fungi to colonize new habitats

364

(1)

Asexual spores are used to disperse well-adapted genetic types

364

(1)

Fungi live in beneficial associations with most plants

364

(3)

Endophytic fungal partners provide benefits to plants

364

(2)

Mycorrhizae and partnerships between fungi and plant roots

366

(1)

Some heterotrophic plants obtain organic food from fungi

366

(1)

Fungi are relevant to humans in many ways

367

(5)

Fungi function as decomposers

367

(2)

Fungi are useful as foods and in industrial production

369

(1)

Some fungi are poisonous or hallucinogenic

370

(2)

Lichens are partnerships between fungi and photosynthetic microbes

372

(4)

Lichen evolution and diversity

372

(1)

Lichen reproduction and development

372

(1)

Lichen ecology

373

(1)

Human uses of lichens

373

Essay 20.1 Fungal Gold: Mining Truffles

369

(5)

Highlights

374

(1)

Review Questions

374

(1)

Applying Concepts

375

(1)

Seedless Plants

376

(24)

What are plants?

378

(3)

Plants are multicellular autotrophs that are adapted to life on land

378

(1)

Plant diversity is important in global ecology and human affairs

378

(3)

DNA and fossils help trace the history of plants

381

(3)

DNA data reveal relationships of modern plants

381

(1)

Land plants evolved from charophycean green algae

381

(1)

DNA evidence reveals the order in which the modern plant groups appeared

382

(1)

Fossils reveal important events in the early evolutionary history of plants

383

(1)

The origin of land-adapted plants

383

(1)

The rise of vascular plants

383

(1)

Early plant evolution illustrates the concept of descent with modification

384

(2)

The plant sporophyte probably originated by delaying zygote meiosis

384

(1)

Leaves of ferns arose from branched stem systems

384

(2)

Modern seedless plant groups include bryophytes, lycophytes, and pteridophytes

386

(14)

Bryophytes are the earliest-divergent modern land plants

386

(1)

Bryophyte bodies are simpler than those of vascular plants

387

(1)

Bryophytes reproduce by wind-dispersed spores, breakage, or asexual structures

387

(3)

Mosses are diverse, ecologically significant, and economically useful

390

(1)

Lycophytes and pteridophytes are modern phyla of seedless vascular plants

391

(1)

Lycophytes have simple leaves

391

(1)

Most pteridophytes have leaves with branched vascular systems

392

(3)

Lycophyte and pteridophyte reproduction illustrates early steps toward seed evolution

395

Essay 21.1 The Plants that Changed the World

380

(18)

Highlights

398

(1)

Review Questions

399

(1)

Applying Concepts

399

(1)

Gymnosperms, the First Seed Plants

400

(18)

Gymnosperms include four modern groups and diverse extinct forms

402

(1)

Modern gymnosperms are classified into four major groups

402

(1)

Diverse groups of extinct gymnosperms were ecologically significant in the past

402

(1)

Gymnosperms produce ovules and seeds in cones, rather than within fruits

402

(5)

An ovule is an integument-covered megasporangium

403

(2)

Seeds develop from ovules whose egg cells have been fertilized

405

(1)

Ovule evolution illustrates Darwin's concept of descent with modification

405

(2)

Seeds provide ecological advantages to present and past plants

407

(2)

Diversity and utility of modern gymnosperms

409

(9)

Cycads are widely planted, but endangered in the wild

409

(1)

Ginko biloba is the maidenhair tree

410

(2)

Conifers are the most diverse living gymnosperms

412

(2)

Pines illustrate the major features of conifers

414

(1)

Gnetophytes are of evolutionary significance

415

Essay 22.1 Plant Survivors

411

(5)

Highlights

416

(1)

Review Questions

417

(1)

Applying Concepts

417

(1)

Angiosperm Diversity and Reproduction

418

(22)

Flowering plants comprise an enormous number and diversity of species

420

(1)

The parts of flowers are arranged in whorls

421

(6)

Flowers vary greatly in the numbers, positions, and arrangements of parts

423

(1)

Flowers have evolved many different types of inflorescence for pollination

423

(4)

The angiosperm life cycle involves an alternation of generations

427

(2)

Double fertilization produces a zygote and an endosperm

427

(1)

Apomixis produces seeds without fertilization

428

(1)

The development of the embryo and seed follows double fertilization

429

(4)

Plant embryos pass through a number of developmental stages

429

(3)

The mature seed is nutritionally independent of the parent plant

432

(1)

A fruit is a mature ovary containing seeds

433

(2)

Simple fruits are the most common type

433

(2)

Complex fruits develop from multiple pistils or multiple flowers

435

(1)

Seed germination and the formation of the adult plant

435

(5)

Germination requirements are closely linked to the environment

435

(1)

After germination, plants follow various patterns of development

436

Essay 23.1 The ABCs of Floral Organ Development

424

(14)

Highlights

438

(1)

Review Questions

438

(1)

Applying Concepts

439

(1)

Flowering Plant and Animal Coevolution

440

(20)

Coevolutionary interactions between flowering plants and animals are common and important in nature and human affairs

442

(1)

Flowering plant-animal coevolutionary interactions are important in agriculture

442

(1)

Coevolution is important in global ecology

443

(1)

Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from one flower to another of the same species

443

(13)

Outbreeding provides greater genetic variability than inbreeding

444

(1)

Animal pollinators offer precision, high-fidelity pollination services

445

(1)

Plant food rewards to animal pollinators include nectar, pollen, and oil

446

(1)

Plants attract pollinators by flower scent, color, shape, and arrangement

446

(2)

Flowers control pollinator access by flower shapes and positions

448

(1)

Animal pollinators can learn to recognize the features of favored flowers

449

(1)

Flowers and pollinators have coordinated traits known as pollination syndromes

449

(1)

Beetles and beetle-pollinated flowers

449

(1)

Bees and bee-pollinated flowers

449

(2)

Nectar-feeding flies, carrion flies, and fly-pollinated flowers

451

(2)

Butterflies, moths, and coevolved flowers

453

(1)

Birds and bird-pollinated flowers

454

(2)

Bats and bat-pollinated flowers

456

(1)

Plants have also coevolved with animals to accomplish seed dispersal

456

(4)

Essay 24.1 Pollination by Wind and Water

445

(13)

Highlights

458

(1)

Review Questions

459

(1)

Applying Concepts

459

(1)

Part 5 Ecology and Plant Adaptations to the Environment

Principles of Ecology and the Biosphere

460

(22)

Ecology focuses on populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, and the biosphere

462

(1)

Populations show patterns of distribution and age structure, grow and decline, occupy specific niches, and interact with other populations

462

(5)

Plants in a population may be distributed in a random, uniform, or clumped pattern

462

(1)

Age distribution and survivorship curves describe the age structure of populations

462

(1)

Populations show distinct patterns of growth

463

(2)

The ecological niche includes the abiotic factors that determine the area the population occupies

465

(1)

The ecological niche includes interactions between populations of different species

465

(1)

In mutualism, two populations exchange benefits

465

(1)

In parasitism, herbivory, and predation, one population benefits and the other is harmed

465

(1)

In competition, individual organisms have a negative impact on each other

466

(1)

Communities are composed of individuals of many different species

467

(4)

Communities can be characterized by their species diversity

467

(1)

Ecological succession is the change in community composition over time

468

(1)

Primary succession begins on areas not previously occupied by organisms

469

(2)

Secondary succession occurs on areas where a community has been removed

471

(1)

Ecosystem studies focus on trophic structure and energy flow

471

(2)

Organisms may be grouped into functional categories

471

(1)

The flow of energy through a food chain is linear

471

(1)

Only a small fraction of energy passes between trophic levels

472

(1)

Global climatic patterns determine the distribution of biomes

473

(3)

The distribution of biomes is determined primarily by global patterns of atmospheric circulation

473

(3)

Continentality, ocean currents, and mountain ranges also affect the distribution of biomes

476

(1)

Matter moves between biomes and the physical environment in large-scale biogeochemical cycles

476

(6)

Water cycles through the oceans, atmosphere, lands, and organisms

476

(1)

Microorganisms largely control the nitrogen cycle

477

(2)

Carbon dioxide cycles between the atmosphere and the biosphere

479

Essay 25.1 Determining Past Climate and Vegetation from Pollen Data

470

(10)

Highlights

480

(1)

Review Questions

481

(1)

Applying Concepts

481

(1)

Arid Terrestrial Ecosystems

482

(30)

Arid terrestrial ecosystems are diverse

484

(1)

Polar deserts have the most severe climates on Earth

484

(2)

Arctic herb barrens contain few species of plants

484

(1)

Continental Antarctica contains only sparse populations of mosses, lichens, and algae

485

(1)

In the maritime Antarctic, bryophytes and lichens are dominant

486

(1)

Temperate and subtropical deserts are characterized by low annual precipitation

486

(10)

Four physical factors determine the locations of temperate and subtropical deserts

487

(1)

Desert plants have adapted to acquire water

488

(1)

Plants using the deep-water table must put down long roots

488

(1)

A great variety of desert plants use surface water

489

(1)

Desert algae, mosses, and lichens are tolerant of high temperatures

489

(1)

Desert annuals and herbaceous perennials grow when water is available

490

(1)

Deciduous perennials maintain significant aboveground biomass

490

(2)

Desert succulents have a number of adaptive features to survive aridity

492

(1)

Succulents conserve water by a low surface-to-volume ratio and CAM metabolism

492

(1)

Much of the volume of succulents is available for water storage

492

(1)

Cacti are extremely tolerant of high temperatures

493

(1)

Water uptake in desert succulents may be very rapid

493

(1)

Stem succulents have cylindrical, globose, or paddle-like stems

493

(1)

Leaf succulents include the agaves, aloes, and stone plants

493

(2)

Human impacts on deserts include mining, depletion of aquifers, and urban sprawl

495

(1)

Grasslands are temperate areas dominated by grasses

496

(10)

Grasslands are ecologically, evolutionarily, and economically important

496

(1)

Grasslands occupy vast areas of land and support immense populations of animals

496

(1)

Grasslands store vast amounts of organic carbon in their soils

496

(1)

Grasslands support the world's most productive agriculture

496

(1)

Grasslands have had a major impact on the evolution of grazer animals and humans

497

(1)

Climate, fire, and herbivores shape grassland environments

497

(1)

Grassland climate is drier and more extreme than that of most forests

498

(1)

Fire plays an important role in maintaining grasslands

498

(1)

Large animal grazers also influence grassland environments

498

(1)

Grassland plants are adapted to cope with environmental stresses

499

(1)

Dominant grass species vary through the year and by region

499

(1)

Grass plants are adapted for fast growth, high productivity, and resistance to fire and grazing

500

(1)

Grass flowers and fruits are adapted for efficient reproduction

501

(1)

Forbs are diverse grassland plants that are neither grasses, trees, nor shrubs

502

(1)

Grassland trees and shrubs are adapted to survive fire and provide important resources for some grazers

502

(1)

Grassland improvement, restoration, and preservation yield benefits for people

503

(1)

Dry grasslands can degrade into deserts

504

(1)

Mesic grasslands have mostly been transformed into farmlands

504

(2)

Wet grasslands provide valuable ecological services

506

(1)

The chaparral ecosystem has hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters

506

(6)

Evergreen shrubs with sclerophyllous leaves dominate the chaparral

507

(1)

Fire is a major ecological force in the chaparral

508

(1)

Some shrubs require fire to establish new seedlings

508

(1)

Other shrubs require an absence of fire to establish seedlings

508

(1)

Trees in the chaparral are adapted to survive wildfires

508

(1)

Human impact has been severe on Mediterranean scrub ecosystems

509

Essay 26.1 Building Biomes on Mars

486

(13)

Essay 26.2 Restoring Prairies

499

(10)

Highlights

509

(1)

Review Questions

510

(1)

Applying Concepts

511

(1)

Moist Terrestrial Ecosystems

512

(32)

Moist terrestrial ecosystems cover a wide range of climates

514

(1)

Polar and alpine ecosystems have arisen since the retreat of the last glaciation

514

(1)

Tundra can be characterized by the absence of trees

514

(3)

Tundra plants show a number of adaptations in form and function

516

(1)

Tundra plants show a number of reproductive adaptations

516

(1)

Coniferous trees dominate the taiga

517

(1)

Alpine tundra and montane coniferous forest are southern extensions of arctic tundra and taiga

518

(2)

Alpine tundra and arctic tundra have many species in common

518

(1)

Dominant conifer species differ among mountain ranges

518

(1)

Mining, logging, grazing, and recreation affect polar and alpine ecosystems at local and regional scales

519

(1)

Temperate deciduous forests are ecosystems with seasonality and abundant precipitation

520

(9)

Eight genera of trees define the eastern temperate deciduous forest

521

(1)

Plants in the temperate deciduous forest are adapted to cold winters and competition for light

522

(2)

Humans have had a major impact on many features of the eastern temperate deciduous forest

524

(1)

Many exotic species have invaded the temperate deciduous forest

525

(1)

Plant rustling from national forests is becoming a serious problem

526

(1)

Research at Hubbard Brook was undertaken to determine how temperate forest ecosystems function

527

(1)

Acid rain is damaging the eastern temperate deciduous forest

528

(1)

Tropical rain forests have a nonseasonal climate and abundant precipitation

529

(15)

Tropical rain forests have high biotic diversity and important global climate effects

529

(1)

Great age, rapid evolution, and complex structure foster high biodiversity

530

(1)

Tropical rain forests store much of the Earth's carbon

531

(1)

Tropical rain forests play an important role in global water cycling

531

(1)

Tropical forest vegetation is distinctive

531

(1)

Tropical forests are tall, evergreen, and layered

531

(1)

Tropical forests are richer in tree species than other forests

531

(1)

Tropical forests contain plant forms that are rare elsewhere

531

(1)

Tropical rain forests are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth

532

(1)

Warm, moist tropical climates favor lush plant growth

532

(2)

Tropical plants compete for light

534

(1)

Some tropical plants are adapted to drought

534

(1)

Heavy rainfall and high winds can damage tropical plants

534

(1)

Paradoxically, lush rain forests grow on poor soils

534

(1)

Tropical forest soils are low in nutrients and organic materials

534

(1)

Tropical forest mineral nutrients are held within tissues of living organisms

535

(1)

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi help tropical rain forest plants cope with poor soils

535

(1)

Early tropical forest farmers learned to cope with poor soils

535

(1)

Temperate-style agriculture is often difficult to practice in the tropics

536

(1)

Tropical forest plants are adapted to numerous environmental stresses

537

(1)

Canopy trees are well adapted to intercept light, but are vulnerable to fire and forest fragmentation

537

(1)

Tropical tree stem architecture is amazingly diverse

537

(1)

Buttress roots provide structural support

537

(1)

Leaves of tropical trees are surprisingly uniform in shape

538

(1)

Tree reproduction is adapted to forest conditions

539

(1)

Lianas' growth and reproduction reflect their clinging lifestyle

540

Essay 27.1 Native American Uses of Temperate Forest Plants

525

(8)

Essay 27.2 Fascinating Orchids

533

(5)

Essay 27.3 Restoring a Lost Forest

538

(3)

Highlights

541

(1)

Review Questions

542

(1)

Applying Concepts

543

(1)

Aquatic Ecosystems

544

(28)

Aquatic ecosystems are essential to humans

546

(1)

People and wildlife depend on freshwaters and wetlands for many services

546

(1)

Lake ecosystems: seasonal changes, habitats, and primary producers

546

(6)

Lakes contain three major types of habitats and communities

546

(1)

Mineral nutrient availability in temperate lakes varies with seasonal temperature change

547

(1)

Spring

547

(1)

Summer

547

(1)

Fall

547

(1)

Winter

547

(1)

Freshwater algae and plants are adapted to aquatic habitats

548

(1)

Algae

548

(1)

Floating plants

548

(1)

Rooted macrophytes

548

(1)

Human activities have degraded freshwaters

549

(1)

Oligotrophic freshwaters are low in nutrients and productivity but high in species diversity

550

(1)

Eutrophic freshwaters are high in nutrients and productivity but low in species diversity

550

(1)

Phosphorous availability controls growth of freshwater plants, algae, and cyanobacteria

550

(1)

Lake and stream eutrophication can be prevented or reversed

551

(1)

Wetland ecosystems

552

(4)

Common freshwater wetlands include riparian wetlands, deep-water swamps, marshes, acid bogs, and sedge meadows

552

(1)

Wetlands play important roles in global carbon cycling

552

(1)

Wetland plants are adapted in ways that help them overcome stresses of wetland habitats

553

(2)

Humans have destroyed many of the world's wetlands

555

(1)

Wetland delineation, invasive species, and restoration are issues in wetland protection and restoration

555

(1)

Oceans are essential to humans and life on Earth

556

(1)

Oceans cover most of the surface of the Earth

557

(3)

Seawater and freshwater differ in the amount of dissolved substances

557

(1)

Ocean basins contain a varied terrain

558

(1)

Atmospheric circulation and the Coriolis force drive ocean currents

558

(1)

Ocean temperatures vary with depth, season, and latitude

559

(1)

The oceans can be divided into realms

560

(1)

The epipelagic ecosystem contains plankton and nekton communities

560

(3)

Bacterioplankton are the most important group in terms of productivity

561

(1)

Phytoplankton are very diverse in form

561

(1)

Diatoms

561

(1)

Dinoflagellates

561

(1)

Haptophytes

562

(1)

The planktonic food web begins with picoplankton

562

(1)

The sublittoral zone includes kelp forests, seagrass beds, and coral reefs

563

(4)

Kelp forests are dominated by large photosynthetic protists

563

(2)

Seagrasses stabilize soft sandy sediments and provide shelter for many marine animals

565

(1)

Coral reefs are among the most beautiful and diverse ecosystems on Earth

566

(1)

The littoral zone includes estuaries, salt marshes, and mangrove forests

567

(5)

Estuaries have relatively few species of organisms

567

(1)

Salt marshes contain herbs, grasses, and shrubs rooted in soils washed by tides

568

(1)

In mangrove forests the trees grow in shallow seawater

569

Essay 28.1 Jamaican Coral Reefs: Going, Going, . . . Gone

568

(2)

Highlights

570

(1)

Review Questions

570

(1)

Applying Concepts

571

(1)

Human Impacts and Sustainability

572

(17)

Sustainability is the maintenance of humans together with healthy environments

574

(1)

Humans impact the global environment in many ways

574

(6)

How many people can Earth sustain?

575

(1)

Human population growth is correlated with environmental degradation

575

(1)

Global warming is affecting every ecosystem on Earth

576

(1)

Humans impact the global environment in a number of other ways

577

(1)

Acid rain

577

(1)

Depletion of soil fertility and erosion

577

(1)

Pollution of coastal zones

577

(1)

Overfishing

578

(1)

Transformation of ecosystems leads to loss of biodiversity

578

(2)

The concept of sustainability has many different dimensions

580

(9)

Stable human populations are necessary for sustainability

580

(1)

Innovative technologies may improve energy sustainability

580

(1)

Sustainable agriculture reduces erosion, nutrient and organic carbon loss, and chemical use

581

(1)

Sustainable use of ocean resources and restoration of coastal zones are future goals

582

(1)

Sustainability requires maintaining ecosystem services and biodiversity

583

(1)

Biodiversity ``hotspots'' are regions of high endemism

583

(1)

Biomes differ in their vulnerability to extinction

584

(1)

Everyone can contribute to global sustainability

584

Essay 29.1 Fossil Fuel-Free in Iceland

582

(2)

Essay 29.2 Sustainable Use of Neotropical Forests

584

(2)

Highlights

586

(1)

Review Questions

586

(1)

Applying Concepts

587

(2)

Appendix I Metric Systems Conversions

589

(2)

Appendix II Geological Time Scale

591

(2)

Answers

593

(30)

Glossary

623

(16)

Credits

639

(2)

Index

641

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Plant Biology

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials