The Political Culture of the Russian Democrats

This book examines the beliefs and views of those who identified themselves as "democrats" during the Gorbachev era in Soviet politics, and traces the development of those beliefs in the post-Soviet era. It bases its analysis on attitudes towards the Soviet state, beliefs about the ideal future democracy, and beliefs about Russia's place in the world. Lukin also places ideology of Russian democrats into the context of Russian and world intellectual history.

Alexander Lukin is Research Fellow, Moscow Institute for Humanist and Political Studies

List of Abbreviations

xiv

Introduction

1

(21)

General framework

1

(7)

Sources and methodology

8

(14)

The sources

9

(1)

The general methods of analysis of the sources

9

(3)

Descriptive literature as a source

12

(1)

Methods of conducting and analysing interviews

13

(5)

Written/recorded articles and the discourse of group members

18

(2)

The results of quantitative research

20

(1)

Participants' memoirs

21

(1)

Official documents of `democratic' groups and parties

21

(1)

`Democratic' Groups in Soviet Russia: An Assessment of the Literature

22

(44)

Russian and Soviet political culture: problems of analysis

22

(13)

Russian political culture and Soviet reality

22

(6)

Soviet political culture: problems of methodology

28

(5)

The occidocentrism of research on Soviet and Russian political culture

33

(2)

Studies of the Russian `democrats'

35

(29)

Reference literature

35

(1)

Descriptive literature

36

(4)

Politically motivated literature

40

(1)

Russian `democrats' and general theories

41

(6)

Studies of the beliefs of Russian `democrats'

47

(17)

Conclusions

64

(2)

The Emergence and Development of `Democratic' Groups and Embryonic Political Parties

66

(47)

Independent groups before perestroyka

66

(2)

Clubs and groups of activists

68

(5)

Discussion clubs

68

(2)

Action groups

70

(1)

Human rights groups

71

(2)

Unions and associations

73

(6)

Associations of clubs and groups

74

(1)

The Democratic Union

75

(2)

Memorial

77

(2)

Popular fronts

79

(2)

Election unions and parties

81

(14)

Voters' clubs and unions

81

(4)

The Democratic Russia Movement

85

(1)

`Democratic' parties

86

(9)

Patterns of joining `democratic' groups and theories of recruitment

95

(8)

Social composition and recruitment

103

(8)

Conclusions

111

(2)

From Marxism to Anti-Communism: the Sources and Evolution of the Political Beliefs of Russian `Democrats'

113

(54)

Official ideology

113

(9)

Personal life experience as a source of `democratic' beliefs

122

(11)

Family education and family reminiscences

133

(5)

Officially published literature in the pre-perestroyka period

138

(7)

Foreign travel

145

(2)

Forbidden materials

147

(5)

Perestroyka and the sweeping conversion to `democratic' values

152

(12)

Conclusions

164

(3)

Hell on Earth: Attitudes toward the Existing Soviet State and Social Structure

167

(25)

From criticism of `certain shortcomings' to full repudiation

167

(1)

Shortcomings caused by `deviation from Marxism'

167

(1)

The notion of the administrative command system

168

(1)

The new class

169

(2)

The Soviet system as a political regime

171

(1)

The Soviet system as a social system

172

(4)

The Soviet system as a historical regression

176

(6)

The Soviet system as a mode of thinking

182

(3)

Methods of struggle

185

(4)

Conclusions

189

(3)

The Ideal Society: Interpretations of Democracy

192

(36)

`Democracy' and `communism' in the late Soviet period

192

(1)

The democracy of `civilized' society and socialist democracy

193

(2)

Democracy as an aim and as a means

195

(1)

Democracy as freedom from state control

196

(8)

Democracy as justice

204

(7)

Democracy as prosperity

211

(1)

Democracy as a `road to perfection'

212

(5)

The internationalism of Russian `democrats'

217

(4)

Methods of struggle for `democracy'

221

(3)

Conclusions

224

(4)

The Bi-polar World: Soviet Totalitarianism and Western Civilization

228

(20)

The world of `democracy' and the world of `totalitarianism'

228

(1)

`Democratic' geography

229

(6)

The advance of history

235

(2)

The road to civilization

237

(1)

The unity of the world and global values

238

(2)

The `democratic' foreign policy

240

(4)

Conclusions

244

(4)

The Political Culture of Russian `Democrats': the New and the Old

248

(40)

Defining Soviet society: why `totalitarianism'?

249

(8)

The beliefs of Russian `democrats' and contemporary theories of democracy

257

(10)

Continuity, change, and Russian politics

267

(12)

The Russian `democratic' political subculture and the dominant political culture of the Soviet Union

279

(9)

Conclusions: The Political Culture of Russian `Democrats' and Russian Politics

288

(13)

Bibliography

301

(13)

List of Interviews

314

(5)

Index

319

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The Political Culture of the Russian "Democrats"

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials