Political Science : An Introduction

, by Roskin, Michael G.; Cord, Robert L.; Medeiros, James A.; Jones, Walter S.

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ISBN: 9780205075942 | 0205075940
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This new edition of Psychology has undergone a major revision with thousands of new references and dozens of new topics added. New co-author Linda Brannon has worked closely with Lester Lefton to rewrite, reorganize, and provide a stronger focus on gender and diversity issues, as well as a new emphasis on the process of research. Four major themes are recurrent in the book: the integration of diversity, the importance of biological/evolutionary topics, the complex relationship between nature and nurture, and the importance of readers' ability to apply and critique basic psychological principles within their own lives. For anyone interested in psychology.

Preface	p. xii
About the Authors	p. 1
What Is Psychology?	p. 2
How Accurate Is the Image of Psychology?	p. 4
Defining Psychology	p. 5
How Did Psychology Begin?	p. 5
The Early Traditions	p. 6
The Behaviorist Revolution	p. 8
Challenges to Behaviorism	p. 8
What Trends Currently Shape Psychology?	p. 10
The Changing Face of Psychology	p. 10
Major Perspectives in Psychology	p. 10
Brain and Behavior: New Ways to Study Brain-Behavior Interactions	p. 14
Current Trends in Psychology	p. 15
Who Are These People Called Psychologists?	p. 17
Types of Mental Health Practitioners	p. 17
What Psychologists Do	p. 18
Point...Counterpoint: Should Psychologists Be Allowed to Write Prescriptions?	p. 19
Making Psychology a Career	p. 20
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 21
How Should You Use This Textbook?	p. 23
Four Recurring Themes in Psychology	p. 23
Psychology in Action: Using Psychological Knowledge to Become a Better Student	p. 24
Summary and Review	p. 26
The Science of Psychology	p. 28
What Makes Psychology a Science?	p. 30
Three Principles of Scientific Endeavor	p. 30
The Scientific Method in Psychology	p. 32
Psychology in Action: Thinking Critically about Research Findings	p. 34
What Research Methods Do Psychologists Use?	p. 35
The Experimental Method	p. 35
Introduction to Research Basics: Sleep and Memory-An Experimental Approach	p. 38
Descriptive Research Methods	p. 38
How Do Psychologists Evaluate Their Research Findings?	p. 43
Using Statistics to Evaluate Research	p. 43
Avoiding Bias in the Research Process	p. 47
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 49
What Ethical Principles Guide Psychology Research?	p. 52
Point...Counterpoint: Should Nonhuman Animals Be Used in Research?	p. 53
Summary and Review	p. 54
Neuroscience: The Brain and Behavior	p. 56
How Is the Nervous System Organized?	p. 58
The Cellular Level	p. 58
Divisions of Nervous System	p. 65
The Brain	p. 68
How Does the Brain Function?	p. 72
Monitoring Neural Activity	p. 73
Brain Specialization	p. 75
Introduction to Research Basics: Correlation Is Not Causation	p. 76
Plasticity and Change	p. 79
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 80
What Effects Do Hormones Have on Behavior?	p. 81
How Do Genetic Factors Affect Behavior?	p. 83
The Issue of Nature versus Nurture	p. 83
The Basics of Genetics	p. 84
How Genes Affect Behavior	p. 85
From Genetics to Genomics	p. 87
Psychology in Action: Genetic Counseling	p. 88
Does Our Evolutionary History Influence Our Current Behavior?	p. 89
Natural Selection	p. 89
Adaptations in Humans	p. 90
Controversies about Evolutionary Psychology	p. 91
Point...Counterpoint: Are Men Sexually Promiscuous by Nature and Women Sexually Selective?	p. 92
Summary and Review	p. 93
Child Development	p. 97
What Are the Central Issues of Development?	p. 98
Issues in Developmental Psychology	p. 98
Research Designs	p. 100
How Does Physical Development Proceed?	p. 102
Prenatal Development	p. 102
Harmful Environmental Effects	p. 103
Newborns Are Ready to Experience the World	p. 104
Point...Counterpoint: Should Ritalin Use among Children Be So Widespread?	p. 105
Introduction to Research Basics: Observing an Infant's Gaze	p. 109
Brain and Behavior: Critical Periods in Brain Development	p. 110
How Does Thought Develop?	p. 111
Jean Piaget's Insights	p. 111
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: An Alternative to Piaget	p. 118
Theory of Mind	p. 119
Thought in a Social Context	p. 120
How Do Social and Emotional Development Proceed?	p. 121
Attachment: The Ties That Bind	p. 121
Temperament	p. 125
Moral Reasoning	p. 127
What Environmental Factors Are Important for Social Development?	p. 130
Early Social Development and Child Rearing	p. 131
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 133
Gender Roles	p. 134
Erik Erikson and the Beginning of the Search for Self	p. 134
Psychology in Action: Gender Stereotypes	p. 135
Summary and Review	p. 137
Adolescence and Adulthood	p. 140
How Do Adolescents Bridge the Gap to Adulthood?	p. 142
Viewing Adolescence in Multiple Contexts	p. 142
Introduction to Research Basics: Does Teen Gambling Predict Adult Problems with Gambling?	p. 144
Physical Development in Adolescence	p. 144
Brain and Behavior: The Prevalence of Eating Disorders	p. 146
Cognitive Development in Adolescence	p. 147
Emotional and Social Development in Adolescence	p. 149
Point...Counterpoint: Should Adolescents Be Able to Make Life-or-Death Decisions about Their Own Health?	p. 151
Who Am I? The Search for Gender Identity	p. 153
Friendship and Sexual Behavior	p. 155
Is Adulthood a Time of Stability or Change?	p. 157
Physical Changes in Adulthood	p. 158
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 161
Cognitive Changes in Adulthood	p. 162
Social and Personality Development in Adulthood	p. 163
Stage Theories of Adult Development	p. 163
Psychology in Action: The Legacy of Divorce	p. 166
Do We Grow Older and Wiser in Late Adulthood?	p. 168
Myths, Realities, and Stereotypes about Aging	p. 170
Health in Late Adulthood	p. 170
The Final Transition: Dying	p. 173
Summary and Review	p. 174
Sensation and Perception	p. 176
How Are Stimulation and Perception Linked?	p. 178
The Difference between Sensation and Perception	p. 178
Psychophysics	p. 179
Selective Attention	p. 180
Point...Counterpoint: Does Subliminal Persuasion Work?	p. 181
Restricted Environmental Stimulation	p. 182
Introduction to Research Basics: Have You Ever Smelled a Color?	p. 183
Inattentional Blindness	p. 184
How Do We See the World?	p. 185
The Structures of the Visual System	p. 186
The Electrochemical Basis of Perception	p. 189
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 190
Brain and Behavior: Geography and Dyslexia	p. 193
Color Vision	p. 194
How Do We Perceive Form and Substance?	p. 198
Perception of Form: Constancy	p. 198
Depth Perception	p. 199
Illusions	p. 202
Prosopagnosia: The Inability to Recognize Faces	p. 204
Gestalt Laws of Organization	p. 205
How Do We Perceive Sounds?	p. 207
What Is Sound?	p. 207
The Structure of the Ear	p. 208
Theories of Hearing	p. 210
Sound Localization	p. 210
Hearing Impairments	p. 211
Psychology in Action: Cochlear Implants-A Spirited Debate	p. 212
Which Senses Are the Least Understood?	p. 213
Taste	p. 213
Smell	p. 214
What Is the Relationship between Touch and Pain?	p. 216
Touch	p. 217
Pain	p. 218
How Do We Keep Our Balance?	p. 221
Does Extrasensory Perception Exist?	p. 222
Summary and Review	p. 223
Consciousness	p. 226
What Is Consciousness?	p. 228
Defining Consciousness	p. 228
Theories of Consciousness	p. 229
What Happens When We Sleep?	p. 231
The Sleep-Wakefulness Cycle: Circadian Rhythms	p. 231
Sleep Stages: REM and NREM Sleep	p. 233
Sleep Deprivation	p. 236
Why Do We Sleep?	p. 237
Is There a Sleep Switch?	p. 238
Sleep Disorders	p. 239
Psychology in Action: Getting a Good Night's Sleep	p. 240
What Are Dreams and What Do They Mean?	p. 241
What Is a Dream?	p. 241
The Content of Dreams	p. 242
Dream Theories	p. 242
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 244
Introduction to Research Basics: The Importance of REM Sleep for Learning and Memory	p. 247
Is It Possible to Control Consciousness by Using Biofeedback, Hypnosis, or Meditation?	p. 248
Biofeedback	p. 249
Hypnosis	p. 249
Point...Counterpoint: Is Hypnosis an Altered State of Consciousness?	p. 250
Mediation	p. 252
How Do Drugs Alter Consciousness?	p. 253
Psychoactive Drugs	p. 253
Drug Use and Abuse	p. 257
Brain and Behavior: Drug Addiction	p. 260
Summary and Review	p. 262
Learning	p. 264
What Type of Learning Is Pavlovian, or Classical, Conditioning?	p. 266
Terms and Procedures	p. 267
Classical Conditioning in Humans	p. 269
Higher-Order Conditioning	p. 270
What Are the Key Variables in Classical Conditioning?	p. 271
Strength, Timing, and Frequency	p. 271
Predictability	p. 272
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery	p. 272
Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination	p. 274
Psychology in Action: Managing Test Anxiety	p. 275
Classical Conditioning in Daily Life	p. 275
Brain and Behavior: Conditioning and Drug Use	p. 278
Pavlov's Understanding Reinterpreted	p. 278
What Type of Learning Is Operant Conditioning?	p. 279
The Pioneers: E. L. Thorndike and B. F. Skinner	p. 280
Reinforcement: A Consequence That Strengthens a Response	p. 280
Two Reinforcement Strategies: Positive and Negative	p. 281
The Skinner Box and Shaping	p. 283
Punishment: A Consequence That Weakens a Response	p. 283
What Are the Key Variables in Operant Conditioning?	p. 287
Strength, Timing, and Frequency	p. 287
Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination	p. 290
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery	p. 290
Operant Conditioning in Daily Life	p. 291
Can Learning Occur through Observation?	p. 294
The Power of Modeling	p. 295
Key Processes in Observational Learning	p. 296
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 297
Observational Learning in Daily Life	p. 298
Other Types of Cognitive Learning	p. 298
Point...Counterpoint: Are There Gender Differences Related to Forming Cognitive Maps?	p. 300
What Is the Biological Basis for Learning?	p. 301
Are Evolutionary Theory and Learning Theory Incompatible?	p. 301
Electrical Brain Stimulation and Reinforcement	p. 302
Brain Changes and Learning	p. 302
Summary and Review	p. 304
Memory	p. 306
How Does the Memory Process Begin?	p. 308
The Brain as Information Processor	p. 308
Encoding	p. 309
Levels of Processing	p. 309
Neuroscience and Encoding	p. 311
What Are the Types of Memory Storage?	p. 312
Sensory Memory	p. 312
Short-Term Storage	p. 313
Long-Term Memory	p. 316
Neuroscience and Storage	p. 319
Brain and Behavior: The Aging Brain and Alzheimer's Disease	p. 321
What Influences Memory Retrieval?	p. 323
Retention: Measures of Retrieval	p. 323
Retrieval Success and Failure: Encoding Specificity	p. 324
Introduction to Research Basics: Mood and Memory	p. 325
What Facilitates Retrieval?	p. 326
Flashbulb Memories	p. 328
Gender and Memory	p. 329
Culture and Memory	p. 330
What Causes People to Forget?	p. 331
Early Studies	p. 331
Key Causes of Forgetting	p. 332
Special Types of Forgetting	p. 335
Psychology in Action: Improving the Justice System	p. 336
Point...Counterpoint: Are Recovered Memories Real?	p. 337
Neuroscience and Forgetting: Studies of Amnesia	p. 338
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 339
Summary and Review	p. 340
Cognitive Psychology	p. 342
What Is Cognitive Psychology?	p. 344
How Do We Form Concepts and Solve Problems?	p. 345
Concept Formation	p. 345
Problem Solving	p. 346
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 348
Barriers to Problem Solving	p. 348
Avoid Barriers: Be a Critical Thinker	p. 350
Creative Problem Solving	p. 351
How Do We Reason and Make Decisions?	p. 353
Uncertainty: Estimating Probabilities	p. 353
Barriers to Sound Decision Making	p. 354
Culture and Reasoning	p. 355
Evolution and Reasoning	p. 356
Brain and Behavior: Is the Ability to Acquire Knowledge Built into the Brain?	p. 357
What Does Artificial Intelligence Reveal about Cognition?	p. 359
The Computer as Information Processor	p. 359
Point...Counterpoint: Can Computers Think?	p. 360
Neural Networks	p. 360
Robotics	p. 362
What Is the Structure of Language?	p. 363
Language and Gender Stereotypes	p. 364
Thought, Culture, and Language	p. 365
Linguistics	p. 366
Language Structure	p. 366
Introduction to Research Basics: Acquiring A First Language	p. 367
The Biological and Evolutionary Basis of Language	p. 369
Psychology in Action: Learing English as a Second Language	p. 370
How Do We Acquire Language?	p. 372
Learning Theories	p. 372
Biological Theories	p. 372
Do Chimpanzees Use Language?	p. 373
Do Dolphins or Whales Use Language?	p. 375
Social Interaction Theory: A Little Bit of Each	p. 375
Summary and Review	p. 377
Intelligence	p. 380
What Are the Origins and History of Psychological Testing?	p. 382
Binet's Intelligence Test	p. 382
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale	p. 382
The Wechsler Scales	p. 383
Group Intelligence Tests	p. 386
What Is Intelligence?	p. 386
Theories of Intelligence-One Ability or Many?	p. 387
Brain and Behavior: Big Brains	p. 389
Emotions-A Different Kind of Intelligence?	p. 392
How Do Psychologists Develop Tests?	p. 394
Developing an Intelligence Test	p. 394
Reliability	p. 395
Validity	p. 396
Introduction to Research Basics: Seeing What You Expect to See	p. 398
How Do Biological and Environmental Factors Contribute to Intelligence?	p. 399
Point...Counterpoint: Are There Racial Differences in Intelligence?	p. 400
Biological Factors and Intelligence	p. 401
Environmental and Cultural Factors in Intelligence	p. 403
The Interaction of Biological and Environmental Factors	p. 404
Psychology in Action: How to Increase Intelligence	p. 406
What Is the Impact of Having an Exceptional IQ?	p. 407
Giftedness	p. 407
Intellectual Disability	p. 408
Special Education: The IDEA	p. 409
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 410
Summary and Review	p. 412
Motivation and Emotion	p. 414
What Is Motivation?	p. 416
Definition of Motivation	p. 416
Theories of Motivation	p. 416
How Does Motivation Affect Behavior?	p. 425
Hunger: A Physiological Need	p. 425
Sexual Behavior: Physiology plus Thought	p. 429
Introduction to Resarch Basics: Sex Surveys	p. 432
Point...Counterpoint: What Is the Underlying Basis of Sexual Orientation?	p. 434
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 435
Social Needs	p. 435
What Is Emotion?	p. 439
Definition of Emotion	p. 439
Theories of Emotion	p. 440
Brain and Behavior: Experiencing and Recognizing Fear	p. 442
How Does Emotion Affect Behavior?	p. 447
Culture and Emotion	p. 447
Gender and Emotion	p. 448
Can We Control Emotions?	p. 449
Psychology in Action: Anger Management	p. 450
Summary and Review	p. 451
Personality and Its Assessment	p. 454
What Is Personality?	p. 456
Definition of Personality	p. 456
Personality in the Cultural Context	p. 456
What Is the Psychodynamic Approach to Personality?	p. 458
The Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud	p. 458
Point...Counterpoint: Is Freud Still Relevant to Psychology?	p. 465
Adler and Individual Psychology	p. 465
Jung and Analytical Psychology	p. 467
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 468
Can Personality Be Learned?	p. 470
The Power of Learning	p. 470
Skinner and Behavioral Analysis: Acquiring a Personality	p. 470
What Are Trait and Type Theories of Personality?	p. 471
Introduction to Research Basics: Are Personality Traits Stable?	p. 472
Allport's Personal Disposition Theory	p. 472
Cattell's Trait Theory	p. 473
Eysenck's Factor Theory	p. 473
The Five-Factor Model	p. 474
Brain and Behavior: The Genetics of Personality Traits	p. 475
What Characterizes the Humanistic Approach to Personality?	p. 476
Maslow and Self-Actualization	p. 476
Rogers and Self Theory	p. 477
Positive Psychology	p. 478
What Is the Cognitive Approach to Personality?	p. 480
Key Cognitive Concepts	p. 480
Kelly and Personal Constructs	p. 480
Rotter and Locus of Control	p. 481
Bandura and Self-Efficacy	p. 482
Psychology in Action: Seeing Violence, Doing Violence	p. 483
Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Personality System	p. 484
How Do Psychologists Assess Personality?	p. 486
Projective Tests	p. 486
Personality Inventories	p. 487
Summary and Review	p. 490
Social Psychology	p. 494
What Is the Social Self?	p. 496
The Self in Social Psychology	p. 496
Thinking about Self and Others	p. 497
Point...Counterpoint: Is High Self-Esteem Always Desirable?	p. 498
How Are Attitudes Related to Behavior?	p. 502
Dimensions of Attitudes	p. 502
Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?	p. 503
Does Behavior Determine Attitudes?	p. 503
How Does Attitude Change Occur?	p. 505
How Do People Relate to Each Other?	p. 508
Attraction and Relationship Formation	p. 508
Aggression and Violence	p. 513
Prosocial Behavior	p. 517
What Are the Effects of Identifying with a Group?	p. 519
Group Performance	p. 520
Identifying as a Group Member	p. 523
Introduction to Research Basics: Stereotypes and Academic Performance	p. 525
Brain and Behavior: Bias in the Brain	p. 527
How Do Others Affect the Individual?	p. 528
Conformity	p. 528
Compliance	p. 529
Obedience to Authority	p. 531
Psychology in Action: Resistance is Not Futile	p. 532
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 534
Summary and Review	p. 535
Stress and Health Psychology	p. 538
What Is Stress?	p. 540
Definition of Stress	p. 540
Sources of Stress	p. 545
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 547
Introduction to Research Basics: Racism and Reactivity	p. 548
Responses to Stress	p. 551
Stress and Health	p. 552
Brain and Behavior: Sick of Final Exams, or Do Final Exams Make You Sick?	p. 555
How Do People Cope with Stress?	p. 556
What Is Coping?	p. 556
Factors That Influence Coping	p. 556
Coping Strategies	p. 558
Psychology in Action: Coping with Campus Life	p. 562
What Is Health Psychology?	p. 563
How Does Behavior Affect Health and Illness?	p. 563
Point...Counterpoint: Does Dieting Lead to Better Health?	p. 565
The Psychology of Being Sick	p. 567
Adopting a Healtheir Lifestyle	p. 569
Health Psychology and the Future	p. 571
Summary and Review	p. 572
Psychological Disorders	p. 574
What Is Abnormal Behavior?	p. 576
A Definition	p. 576
Perspectives on Abnormality	p. 577
Diagnosing Psychopathology: The DSM	p. 580
Introduction to Research Basics: Cross-Cultural Factors in Diagnosis and Treatment	p. 583
What Are Anxiety Disorders?	p. 584
Defining Anxiety	p. 585
Generalized Anxiety Disorder	p. 585
Panic Disorder	p. 585
Phobic Disorders	p. 586
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder	p. 587
What Are Mood Disorders?	p. 589
Depressive Disorders	p. 589
Causes of Major Depressive Disorder	p. 591
Bipolar Disorder	p. 594
What Are Dissociative Disorders?	p. 595
Dissociative Amnesia	p. 596
Dissociative Identity Disorder: Multiple Personalities	p. 596
Point...Counterpoint: Is Multiple Personality Disorder a Real Mental Disorder?	p. 597
What Is Schizophrenia?	p. 598
Essential Characteristics of Schizophrenic Disorders	p. 598
Types of Schizophrenia	p. 600
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 601
Brain And Behavior: "It's All in Your Head"	p. 602
Causes of Schizophrenia	p. 603
What Are Personality Disorders?	p. 605
How Are Violence and Mental Disorders Related?	p. 608
Diagnoses Associated with Violence	p. 608
Violence as a Risk for Developing Mental Disorders	p. 610
Psychology in Action: Preventing Suicide	p. 611
Summary and Review	p. 613
Therapy	p. 616
What Is Psychotherapy, and What Types Are Available?	p. 618
Is Psychotherapy Necessary and Effective?	p. 619
Which Therapy, Which Therapist?	p. 621
Are There Common Factors among Therapists?	p. 622
Introduction to Research Basics: Prevention of Alcohol Abuse at College	p. 623
What Roles Do Culture and Gender Play in Therapy?	p. 625
Has Managed Care Changed Therapy?	p. 627
Psychology In Action: Choosing a Therapist	p. 628
How Do Psychodynamic Therapies Work?	p. 630
Goals of Psychoanalysis	p. 630
Techniques of Psychoanalysis	p. 631
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Look	p. 632
Criticisms of Psychoanalysis	p. 633
What Do Humanistic Therapies Emphasize?	p. 634
Techniques of Client-Centered Therapy	p. 635
Criticisms of Client-Centered Therapy	p. 636
What Are the Methods of Behavior Therapy?	p. 637
Assumptions and Goals of Behavior Therapy	p. 637
Operant Conditioning in Behavior Therapy	p. 638
Counterconditioning in Behavior Therapy	p. 641
Modeling in Behavior Therapy	p. 642
Point...Counterpoint: Can Alcoholics Become Controlled Drinkers?	p. 643
Why Is Cognitive Therapy So Popular?	p. 644
Assumptions of Cognitive Therapy	p. 644
Types of Cognitive Therapy	p. 644
How Does Therapy in a Group Work?	p. 648
Techniques of Group Therapy	p. 648
Family Therapy	p. 648
How Do Psychologists Reach Out to Communities?	p. 650
How Do Biologically Based Therapies Create Change?	p. 653
Drugs and the Therapeutic Process	p. 653
Brain and Behavior: A Best-Selling Medication-Prozac	p. 655
Psychosurgery and Electroconvulsive Therapy	p. 656
Alternative Therapies	p. 658
The Debate over Hospitalization	p. 658
Summary and Review	p. 659
Psychology in Action	p. 662
How Is Behavior Affected by the Work Environment?	p. 664
Definition of Industrial/Organizational Psychology	p. 664
Human Resources	p. 665
Point...Counterpoint: Does Monitoring Drug and Alcohol Use Violate Employees' Rights?	p. 667
Introduction to Research Basics: Sex Discrimination in Job Interviews	p. 669
Motivation and Job Performance	p. 672
Job Satisfaction	p. 676
Teams and Teamwork	p. 678
Leadership	p. 679
The Future of I/O Psychology	p. 683
How Do Human Factors Affect Performance?	p. 684
Efficiency	p. 684
Behavior-Based Safety	p. 685
How Do Psychology and the Law Work Together?	p. 687
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