Practical Design and Production of Optical

Contains expanded discussions on design visualization, dense wavelength division multiplexing, new coating, equipment, electrochromatic and chemically active coatings, ion-assisted deposition, and optical monitoring sensitivity.

Ronald R. Willey is a Consultant with Willey Optical, Consultants, Charlevoix, Michigan

Preface to the Second Edition

iii

Preface to the First Edition

v

Fundamentals of Thin Film Optics and the Use of Graphical Methods in Thin Film Design

1

(90)

Introduction

1

(4)

Review of Thin Film Optics Principles

5

(3)

Reflectance Diagrams

8

(28)

Low Reflectors, Antireflection Coatings

10

(9)

High Reflectors

19

(3)

Narrow Bandpass Pass Filters

22

(8)

Beamsplitters

30

(4)

Three-Layer AR Coating on Germanium, Example

34

(2)

Example Four-Layer Broad Band AR Coating in the Visible

36

(1)

Physical Thickness versus Optical Thickness

36

(1)

Admittance Diagrams

36

(3)

Triangle Diagrams

39

(22)

Designing Coatings with Absorbing Materials

40

(21)

Approximations of Indices and Designs

61

(4)

Inhomogeneous Index Functions

65

(18)

Low Index Limitations

74

(3)

A Fourier Approach

77

(6)

Optimization

83

(5)

Performance Goals and Weightings

84

(1)

Constraints

85

(1)

Global versus Local Minima

85

(1)

Some Optimizing Concepts

86

(2)

Summary

88

(1)

References

88

(3)

Estimating What Can Be Done Before Designing

91

(38)

Introduction

91

(1)

Antireflection Coatings

91

(10)

Procedure

92

(1)

The Formula

93

(2)

Results

95

(6)

Summary of Antireflection Coating Estimation

101

(1)

Bandpass and Blocker Coatings

101

(20)

Estimating the Width of a Blocking Band

102

(2)

Estimating the Optical Density of a Blocking Band

104

(1)

Estimating the Number of Layers and Thickness Needed

105

(1)

Estimating More Complex Coatings

105

(6)

Estimating Edge Filter Passband Reflection Losses

111

(10)

Dichroic Reflection Coatings

121

(2)

DWDM Filters

123

(4)

Summary

127

(1)

References

128

(1)

Fourier Viewpoint of Optical Coatings

129

(21)

Introduction

129

(1)

Fourier Concepts

129

(18)

Background

130

(4)

Some Limitations

134

(3)

A Method to Determine the Multiple Reflections

137

(2)

Overcoming Low Index Limitations with Thickness

139

(8)

Designing A Very Broad Band AR Coating

147

(1)

Conclusions

148

(1)

References

149

(1)

Typical Equipment for Optical Coating Production

150

(71)

Introduction

150

(1)

General Requirements

151

(57)

The Vacuum

152

(15)

Evaporation Sources

167

(24)

Fixturing and Uniformity

191

(10)

Temperature Control

201

(4)

Process Control

205

(3)

Typical Equipment

208

(5)

Alternative Approaches

213

(1)

Utilities

213

(2)

References

215

(6)

Materials and Process Know-How

221

(139)

Introduction

221

(22)

Measuring Spectral Results in the Real World

222

(10)

Index of Refraction Determination

232

(11)

Process Know-How

243

(14)

Film Growth Models and Observations

244

(5)

Chiral and Sculptured Coatings

249

(1)

Stress in Coatings

249

(3)

Laser Damage in Coatings

252

(3)

Rain Erosion of Coatings

255

(2)

Materials

257

(51)

Some Specific Materials

258

(50)

Ion Sources

308

(20)

Cold Cathode Source

310

(2)

End-Hall Source

312

(3)

PS1500 Plasma/Ion Source

315

(13)

Other Processes to Consider

328

(6)

Surface Preparation and Cleaning

328

(1)

Physical Vapor Deposition

329

(1)

Dip, Spin, and Spray Coatings

330

(1)

Chemical Vapor Deposition

331

(1)

Plasma-Enhanced CVD

331

(1)

Plasma Polymerization

332

(1)

Hard Carbon Coatings

333

(1)

Summary

334

(1)

References

335

(25)

Process Development

360

(22)

Introduction

360

(4)

Design of Experiments Methodology

364

(5)

Process Flow Diagram

364

(2)

Cause-and-Effect Diagram

366

(1)

Control, Noise, or Experiment

366

(3)

Standard Operating Procedures

369

(1)

Design of the Experiments: Examples

369

(12)

A Central Composite Design for Aluminizing

371

(4)

A Box-Behnken Design for IAD Deposition of TiO2

375

(6)

Summary

381

(1)

References

381

(1)

Monitoring and Control of Thin Film Growth

382

(115)

Introduction

382

(2)

Effects of Errors

384

(4)

Ways to Monitor

388

(12)

Measured Charge

388

(2)

Time/Rate Monitoring

390

(1)

Crystal Monitoring

391

(1)

Optical Thickness Monitors

392

(6)

Trade-offs in Monitoring

398

(2)

Error Compensation and Degree of Control

400

(33)

Narrow Bandpass Filter Monitoring

401

(4)

DWDM Filter Monitoring

405

(22)

Error Compensation in Edge Filters

427

(1)

Broad Band Monitoring Compensation

428

(1)

Effects of Thin Film Wedge on the Monitor Chip

429

(2)

Error Due to Width of the Monitoring Passband

431

(2)

Calibrations and Variations

433

(6)

Tooling Factors

434

(1)

Variations

435

(1)

The Optical Monitor with Crystal Method of Schroedter

436

(2)

Suggestion for Computer-Aided Monitoring

438

(1)

Sensitivity and Strategies

439

(40)

Sensitivity versus Layer Termination Point in Reflectance

440

(1)

Sensitivity versus g-Value

441

(4)

Precoated Monitor Chips

445

(1)

Eliminating the Precoated Chip

445

(8)

Constant Level Monitoring Strategies

453

(5)

Steering the Monitoring Signal Result

458

(9)

Variation of Band-Edge Position with Monitoring Errors

467

(9)

Almost Achromatic Absentee Layers

476

(3)

Practical Considerations

479

(12)

A Narrow Bandpass Filter

479

(1)

A Special ``Multichroic'' Beamsplitter

480

(1)

A Very Broadband Antireflection Coating

481

(7)

Single Beam versus Double Beam Optical Monitors

488

(1)

Automation versus Manual Monitoring

489

(2)

Summary

491

(1)

References

492

(5)

Appendix: Metallic and Semiconductor Material Graphs

497

(16)

A.1. Introduction

497

(16)

Author Index

513

(16)

Subject Index

529

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Practical Design and Production of Optical Thin Films

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials