The Practice of Silviculture: Applied Forest Ecology, 9th Edition

, by David M. Smith (Emeritus, Yale Univ.); Bruce C. Larson (Yale Univ.); Matthew J. Kelty (Univ. of Massachusetts); P. Mark S. Ashton (Yale Univ.)

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ISBN: 9780471109419 | 047110941X
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 10/1/1996

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This is the premier source of ecologically and econimically sound information on the long-term treatment of forests. It provides the information necessary to understand, analyze, and apply the various techniques available for growing stands under any circumstances. It emphasizes the development of techniques so professionals are able to invent silvicultural solutions to problems.

PART 1 Introduction to Silviculture

Silviculture and its Place in Forestry

(17)

The Purpose of Silviculture

(5)

Improving on Nature Through Silviculture

(1)

Control of Stand Structure and Process

(1)

Control of Composition

(2)

Control of Stand Density

(1)

Restocking of Unproductive Areas

(1)

Protection and Reduction of Losses

(1)

Control of Rotation Length

(1)

Facilitating Harvesting

(1)

Conservation of Site Productivity

(1)

Silviculture as Applied Ecology

(1)

Ecological Technology

(1)

Relationship with Forest Management and the Social Sciences

(1)

The Stand and the Forest

(1)

Scope and Terminology of Silvicultural Practice

(2)

Kinds of Stands

(1)

Kinds of Silvicultural Treatments

(1)

Role of Cutting in Silviculture

(1)

Effect of Cutting on Growing Stock

(1)

Silviculture and the Long-Term Economic Viewpoint

(1)

Variations in Intensity of Practice

(1)

Silviculture in Application

(1)

Silvicultural Literature

(2)

Stand Dynamics

(27)

Initiating Disturbances and Sources of Regeneration

(2)

Cohorts and Age Classes

(1)

Identification of Age Classes

(2)

Stages of Stand Development

(2)

Pure, Even-Aged, Single-Canopied Stands

(3)

Double-Cohort Stands

(1)

Pure, Uneven-Aged or Multicohort Stands

(1)

Mixed Single-Canopied Stands

(1)

Single-Cohort Stratified Mixtures

(4)

Mixed, Multicohort Stands

(1)

Relationship to Other Interpretations of Vegetational Development

(4)

The Ecosystem Concept

(2)

Choice of Developmental Patterns

(7)

PART 2 Tending and Intermediate Cutting

The Response of Individual Trees to Thinning and Pruning

(22)

Response of Trees to Increased Growing Space

(10)

Priorities in Allocation of Carbohydrates

(1)

Stem Form

(2)

Tree Growth as a Guide to Thinning

(2)

Biological Basis for Quantifying Tree Development

(1)

Effect on Wood Quality

(1)

Growth Rate---Not a Causative Factor

(1)

Controlling Wood Properties by Thinning

(1)

Pruning

(12)

Natural Pruning

(1)

Knots

(2)

Artificial Pruning

(1)

Pruning for Timber Production

(4)

Pruning of Ornamental Trees

(1)

Shearing and Pruning of Christmas Trees

(2)

Management of Growth and Stand Yield by Thinning

(30)

Forest Productivity

(4)

Stand Development and Productivity

(2)

Quantification of Production

(1)

Analysis of Increment

(4)

Parameters of Stand Density or Stocking

(2)

Relationships Between Numbers and Sizes of Trees

(4)

Modeling Growth and Yield

(2)

Thinning and its Objectives

(6)

Quantifying Objectives

(2)

The Effect of Thinning on Stand Production

(3)

The Effect of Thinning on the Economic Yield of Stands

(6)

Salvage of Anticipated Losses

(1)

Increase in Value from Improved Diameter Growth

(3)

Yield of Income and Control of Investment in Growing Stock During Rotation

(1)

Improvement of Product Quality

(1)

Control of Stand Composition and Effects on Regeneration

(1)

Reducing Risk

(1)

Additional Ideas on Growth and Productivity

(6)

Interspecific Variations in Production

(6)

Methods and Application of Thinning

(32)

Methods of Thinning

(18)

Low Thinning

(3)

Crown Thinning

102

(3)

Applications of Crown Thinning

105

(2)

Selection Thinning or Thinning of Dominants

107

(1)

Different Forms of Selection Thinning

108

(3)

Problems with Selection Thinning

111

(1)

Geometric Thinning

112

(1)

Row and Strip Thinning

113

(2)

Potential Problems

115

(1)

Free Thinning

116

(1)

Quantitative Definition of Thinning Methods

116

(1)

Thinning Schedules

117

(12)

Choosing Methods of Thinning

117

(3)

Timing of the First Thinning

120

(1)

Precommercial Thinning

121

(1)

Effect of Stand Structure

122

(1)

Timing of Subsequent Thinnings

122

(2)

Regulation of Stand Density and Thinning Intensity

124

(1)

Tree-Spacing Guide

125

(1)

Taper Guide

126

(1)

Thinning Guides Based on Crown Expansion

127

(1)

Formulation of Thinning Schedules

127

(2)

Relation to Forest Uses Other than Timber Production

129

(1)

Conclusion

129

(2)

Release Operations and Herbicides

131

(30)

Killing Vegetation in Place

132

(1)

Tactics

132

(1)

Cutting Small Trees and Shrubs

133

(1)

Herbicides

133

(14)

Toxicity of Herbicides and Other Pesticides

133

(1)

Registration of Herbicides

134

(1)

Quantitative Toxicology

134

(2)

Fate of Herbicides

136

(1)

Modes of Entry and Movement of Herbicides in Woody Plants

137

(1)

Penetration

137

(1)

Translocation

137

(1)

Formulation of Herbicides

138

(1)

Methods of Applying Herbicides

139

(1)

Stem Injection

139

(1)

Stump-Surface Treatment

140

(1)

Basal Bark Treatment

140

(1)

Soil Application

141

(1)

Foliage Application

141

(3)

Herbicide Compounds

144

(1)

Chlorophenoxy Herbicides

144

(1)

Other Auxin Herbicides

145

(1)

Triazine Herbicides

146

(1)

Phosphonalkyl Compounds

146

(1)

Imidazolinone

146

(1)

Cleaning

147

(4)

Types of Vegetation Removed

147

(1)

Timing of Cleanings

148

(2)

Extent of Release in Cleaning

150

(1)

Liberation Operations

151

(3)

Methods of Liberation

151

(1)

Cutting

152

(1)

Girdling

152

(2)

Application of Release Operations

154

(7)

PART 3 Regeneration

Ecology of Regeneration

161

(34)

Ecological Role of Natural Disturbance

161

(1)

Introduction

161

(1)

Kinds of Natural Regenerative Disturbances

162

(5)

Severe Disturbances

163

(1)

Releasing Disturbances

164

(1)

Patterns in Floristics in Relation to Disturbance

164

(1)

The Role of Fire as a Disturbance

164

(3)

Disturbance and the Environment of the Microsite

167

(5)

Water Loss

168

(1)

Surface Temperature and Energy Transfers

168

(3)

Light

171

(1)

The Regeneration Process

172

(1)

Mechanisms of Essential Stages of Natural Regeneration

172

(12)

Flowering

172

(5)

Seed Supply

177

(1)

Seed Dispersal

177

(3)

Storage

180

(1)

Germination

180

(1)

Succulent Stage

181

(1)

Growth and Establishment

182

(2)

Provisions for Initiating Natural Regeneration

184

(5)

Regulation of Regenerative Canopy Openings

184

(4)

Regulation of the Groundstory

188

(1)

Regeneration Methods as Analogs to Natural Disturbance

189

(6)

Preparation and Treatment of the Site

195

(39)

Disposal of Logging Slash

196

(11)

Effects of Slash on the Future Stand

196

(1)

Slash in Relation to Forest Fires

196

(1)

Effect of Slash on Reproduction

197

(1)

Management of Slash, Litter, and Soil

197

(1)

Effects of Burning on Nutrients and Soil

198

(1)

Effects of Removing Organic Materials

199

(2)

Effects of Burning Forest Fuels on the Air

201

(1)

Slash in Relation to Insects and Fungi

202

(1)

Slash in Relation to Harvesting Operations

202

(1)

Slash in Relation to Aesthetics and Wildlife

203

(1)

Methods and Application of Slash Disposal

203

(1)

Broadcast Burning of Slash

203

(1)

Spot Burning

204

(1)

Burning of Piled Slash

205

(1)

Lopping and Scattering of Slash

206

(1)

Direct Control of Bark Beetles in Slash

206

(1)

Chipping and Yarding of Slash

206

(1)

Treatment of the Forest Floor and Competing Vegetation

207

(17)

Seedbed Preparation

207

(1)

Competing Vegetation

207

(2)

Techniques of Treatment

209

(1)

Prescribed Burning

210

(1)

Purposes and Effect of Prescribed Burning

210

(2)

Potential Damage from Prescribed Burning

212

(1)

Methods of Prescribed Burning

213

(1)

Application of Prescribed Burning

214

(3)

Mechanical Treatments

217

(3)

Limitations of Mechanical Treatments

220

(2)

Herbicide Treatments

222

(2)

Flooding

224

(1)

Improvement of Site

224

(10)

Fertilization

224

(2)

Drainage

226

(2)

Irrigation

228

(1)

Protection

229

(5)

Site Classification and Species Selection

234

(30)

Methods of Identifying and Classifying Sites

235

(12)

Nature of Site or Habitat

235

(1)

The Use of Site Analysis in Silviculture

236

(3)

Use of Tree Growth As an Indicator of Site Quality

239

(3)

Understory Plant Indicators and Habitat Types

242

(1)

Analysis of Soils and Topography

243

(2)

Ecological Site Classification

245

(2)

Selection of Species and Provenances

247

(9)

Adaptation to Site

247

(1)

Utility of Species for Different Objectives

248

(4)

Selection of Provenances

252

(1)

Exotic Species

253

(2)

Problems with the Use of Exotic Species

255

(1)

Genetic Improvement

256

(8)

Procedures in Tree Improvement Programs

256

(2)

Hybrids

258

(1)

Vegetation Multiplication and Tissue Culture

259

(1)

Use of Genetic Improvement

259

(1)

Conservation of Genetic Resources

260

(1)

Genetic Improvement with Natural Regeneration

261

(3)

Artificial Regeneration

264

(37)

Planting

264

(23)

Kinds of Planting Stock

265

(1)

Size of Plants

265

(2)

Bare-rooted Seedlings

267

(1)

Classification of Nursery Stock

268

(1)

Transportation and Storage of Bare-root Seedlings

268

(1)

Care of Planting Stock in the Field

269

(1)

Containerized Seedlings

269

(1)

Kinds of Containers and Their Characteristics

270

(2)

Handling of Containerized Seedlings

272

(1)

Vegetative Propagation of Planting Stock

272

(1)

Season of Planting

273

(1)

Site Preparation

274

(1)

Methods of Planting

274

(6)

Planting Machines

280

(1)

Placement of Seedlings and Reshaping of Soil Surface

281

(1)

Density of Plantations

281

(1)

Spatial Arrangement of Plantations

282

(2)

Mixed Plantations

284

(1)

Enrichment Planting and Underplanting

285

(1)

Protection of New Plantations

285

(1)

The Role of Planting

286

(1)

Direct Seeding

287

(14)

Seed Supply

287

(2)

Treatment of Seeds to Hasten Germination

289

(1)

Control of Seed-Eating Animals

290

(1)

Effect of Site Factors and Their Modification

290

(1)

Relative Merits of Direct Seeding and Planting

291

(1)

Broadcast Seeding

292

(1)

Strip and Spot Seeding

293

(1)

Application of Direct Seeding

294

(7)

PART 4 Stand Development and Structure

Development of Silvicultural Systems and Methods of Regeneration

301

(15)

Classification of Methods of Regeneration

301

(2)

The Basis of Distinction Between Methods of Regeneration

303

(1)

Formulation of Silvicultural Systems

304

(3)

Elements of Silvicultural Systems

307

(2)

Role of Ownership Objectives in Formulating Silvicultural Systems

309

(1)

Resolution of Conflicting Objectives

310

(1)

Silviculture by Stand Prescription

310

(1)

Naming of Silvicultural Systems

311

(1)

The Silvicultural System as Working Hypothesis

312

(4)

The Silviculture of Pure Even - Aged Stands

316

(14)

Plantation Silviculture

317

(3)

Policies about Application of Plantation Silviculture

319

(1)

Regeneration of Pure Stands from Natural or Artificial Seeding

320

(2)

Clearcutting with Seeding from Adjacent Stands

320

(1)

Clearcutting with Regeneration from Seed on the Site

321

(1)

Applications of Pure-Stand Silviculture

322

(5)

West Coast Douglas-fir Region

322

(2)

Southern Pines

324

(2)

Closed-Cone Pines

326

(1)

The Semantics of Clearcutting

327

(3)

Vegetatively Regenerated Stands

330

(17)

Vegetative Regeneration

330

(6)

Stump-Sprouts

332

(2)

Stool-Sprouts

334

(1)

Seedling-Sprouts

335

(1)

Lignotubers

335

(1)

Sprouts from Adventitious Buds

336

(1)

Layering

336

(1)

Stump-Sprout Stands

336

(2)

Root-sucker Stands

338

(1)

Planted Coppice Stands

339

(1)

Coppice with Standards

340

(1)

The Role of Coppice Stands

341

(2)

Modern Use

343

(1)

Conversion of Coppice Stands to High Forests

344

(1)

Stands Reproduced by Natural Layering

345

(2)

Double - Cohort Pure Stands Regenerated by Partial Cutting

347

(17)

Preparatory Cuttings

348

(1)

Establishment or Seeding Cuttings

348

(5)

Characteristics of Reserved Trees

349

(1)

Arrangement, Number, and Distribution of Seed Trees

350

(1)

Sporadicity of Seed Crops

351

(1)

Severity of Cutting

352

(1)

Arrangement of Seed Trees

352

(1)

Removal Cuttings

353

(2)

Variations in Spatial Patterns of Stand Structure

355

(1)

Strip Arrangements

356

(1)

Application of Seed-tree Systems

356

(1)

Application of Shelterwood Systems

357

(7)

Silviculture of Pure Uneven-Aged Stands

364

(27)

The Place of Uneven-Aged Stands

366

(1)

Single-Tree Selection System

366

(1)

Group-Selection System

367

(4)

Strip-Selection System

371

(1)

Quantitative Methods of Managing Uneven-Aged Stands

371

(10)

The Concept of the Balanced All-Aged Stand

371

(1)

Simplifying Approximations

372

(1)

Regulation of Cut by Diameter Distribution

373

(3)

Negative Exponential Distributions of Diameters as Guides

376

(2)

Possibilities with More Large and Fewer Small Trees

378

(1)

Other Approaches to Regulation of Stands for Sustained Yield

379

(1)

Pitfalls

380

(1)

Creation of Balanced Uneven-Aged Stands

380

(1)

Irregular Uneven-Aged Stands

381

(1)

Evolution of Selection Methods

382

(2)

Economic Selection Methods and ``Selective Cutting''

383

(1)

Examples of Management of Pure Uneven-Aged Stands

384

(7)

Restrictive Sites

384

(3)

Good Sites

387

(4)

Stands of Mixed Species

391

(32)

Single-cohort Stratified Mixtures

392

(1)

Relation Between Development and Treatment

392

(6)

Irregular Shelterwood Method

398

(2)

``One-Cut'' Shelterwood Method

400

(2)

Planting of Mixed Stands

402

(1)

Alternatives to the Concept of Stratified Mixtures

403

(1)

Mistaking Size for Age in Mixed Stands

403

(2)

Mixed, Multi-cohort Stands

405

(4)

Strip Arrangements

407

(1)

Group Arrangements

408

(1)

Two-Aged Stands

409

(2)

Examples of Management of Mixed Stands

411

(4)

North American Stratified Mixtures

411

(2)

Moist Tropical Forests

413

(2)

Relative Merits of Pure and Mixed Stands

415

(8)

PART 5 Silvicultural Management Objectives

Timber Management

423

(26)

The Role of Wood Utilization

424

(1)

Sustained Yield

425

(6)

Financial Considerations

431

(6)

Treatment of Monetary Investments

432

(2)

Choice of Interest Rate

434

(1)

Other Financial Factors

435

(1)

Rotation Length

435

(2)

Analysis of Stand Increment

437

(1)

Concentration and Efficient Arrangement of Operations

438

(2)

Harvesting Costs

438

(1)

Other Silvicultural Costs

439

(1)

Road Network and Harvest Layout Design

440

(2)

Aesthetic Considerations

441

(1)

Control of Operations

442

(1)

Designation of Trees and Stands for Cutting

442

(1)

Tree Marking

443

(6)

Mechanics of Marking

443

(1)

Costs and Benefits of Marking

444

(1)

Guidance of Timber Markers

444

(1)

Control of Waste and Damage in Logging

445

(2)

Protecting Vegetation

447

(2)

Silvicultural Management of Watershed Ecosystems

449

(15)

Protection of Soil and Water Quality

449

(2)

Landslides on Steep Slopes

451

(1)

Effect of Cutting Trees

452

(1)

Fog-drip

453

(1)

Wetland Problems

454

(1)

Storage and Leaching of Nutrients

455

(1)

Association with Close Utilization of Resources

456

(1)

Defense by Revegetation

456

(1)

Construction and Maintenance of Roads and Trails

457

(2)

Management of Road Networks

459

(1)

Effect of Different Kinds of Logging Equipment

460

(4)

Silvicultural Control of Damaging Agencies

464

(19)

Protection Against Abiotic Agencies

465

(5)

Fire Control

465

(1)

Dealing with Dead Wood and Slash

466

(2)

Wind Damage

468

(2)

Protection from Ice, Snow, and Frost

470

(1)

Biotic Agencies

470

(5)

Role of Mixtures of Species and Age Classes

473

(1)

Problems with Unnatural Conditions

474

(1)

Other Aspects of Pest Management

475

(1)

Damage Control Cuttings

475

(8)

Presalvage Cuttings

475

(1)

Sanitation Cuttings

476

(2)

Salvage Cuttings

478

(5)

Silvicultural Management of Wildlife Habitat

483

(25)

Habitat Elements

485

(8)

Food

486

(3)

Shelter

489

(2)

Stream Habitats

491

(2)

Importance of Vertical Stand Structure

493

(1)

Importance of Modifying Forest Structure

494

(7)

Tree Species Composition

494

(1)

Old-Growth Habitat

495

(1)

Sizes and Spatial Arrangement of Stands

495

(5)

Corridors

500

(1)

The Landscape Context of a Management Area

500

(1)

Examples of Application

501

(5)

Elk and Woodpecker Habitat in Eastern Oregon

501

(2)

Habitat Diversity in Southern New England

503

(1)

Biodiversity Conservation in Boreal Forests

504

(2)

Control of Wildlife Damage to Trees

506

(2)

Agroforestry

508

(11)

Stages of Stand Development and Agroforestry

509

(1)

Agrisilvicultural Practices

510

(3)

Silvopastoral Practices

513

(3)

Shelterbelts and Contour Hedgerows

516

(1)

Selection of Tree Species for Agroforestry

516

(3)

Appendix I Common and Scientific Names of Trees and Shrubs Mentioned in the Text

519

(4)

Appendix II Abbreviations in Reference Lists

523

(2)

Index

525

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The Practice of Silviculture: Applied Forest Ecology, 9th Edition

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials