Principles of Helicopter Flight

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ISBN: 9781560276494 | 1560276495
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 7/1/2006

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Recently updated, this comprehensive handbook explains the aerodynamics of helicopter flight, as well as how to perform typical helicopter maneuvers, unlike many aviation training manuals which are strictly how-to guides. Beginning with the basics of aerodynamics, each step of the process is fully illustrated and thoroughly explainedfrom the physics of helicopter flying and advanced operations to helicopter design and performanceproviding helicopter pilots with a sound technical foundation on which to base their in-flight decisions. Containing discussions on the NOTAR (no tail rotor) system, strakes, and frequently misunderstood principles of airspeed and high-altitude operations, this revised edition also includes the latest procedures and regulations from the Federal Aviation Administration.

Foreword	p. xi
Preface	p. xii
Physics	p. 1
Newton's Laws	p. 1
Newton's First Law	p. 1
Newton's Second Law	p. 2
Newton's Third Law	p. 3
Conclusion	p. 3
Mathematical Terms	p. 3
Velocity	p. 3
Acceleration	p. 3
Equilibrium	p. 4
Gravitational Forces	p. 4
Centripetal Force	p. 5
Vector Quantities	p. 5
Moments and Couples	p. 6
Moments	p. 6
Couples	p. 6
Energy	p. 6
Pressure Energy	p. 6
Dynamic (Kinetic) Energy	p. 7
Units of Measurement	p. 7
Graphs	p. 8
	p. 10
The Atmosphere	p. 11
Atmospheric Pressure	p. 11
Air Temperature	p. 11
Combined Effects	p. 12
Moisture Content	p. 12
The Standard Atmosphere (ISA)	p. 12
Pressure Altitude	p. 13
Density Altitude	p. 13
Summary	p. 13
Operational Considerations	p. 14
	p. 14
Lift	p. 15
Definitions	p. 15
The Lift Formula	p. 18
Dynamic Energy	p. 20
Summary	p. 20
Indicated Airspeed and True Airspeed	p. 21
Center of Pressure	p. 22
Aerodynamic Center	p. 24
	p. 26
Drag	p. 27
Types of Drag	p. 28
Parasite Drag	p. 28
Profile Drag	p. 29
Form Drag	p. 29
Skin Friction	p. 30
Induced Drag	p. 31
Tip Vortices	p. 33
Effect of Airspeed on Induced Drag	p. 34
Effect of Aspect Ratio	p. 34
Methods to Reduce Induced Drag	p. 35
Wash-out	p. 35
Tip Design	p. 35
Total Drag Curve	p. 36
Conclusion	p. 37
	p. 38
Lift/Drag Ratio	p. 39
Best (or Maximum) L/D Ratio	p. 40
Other Factors Influencing L/D Ratio	p. 41
Conclusion	p. 41
	p. 42
Aerodynamic Forces	p. 43
Definitions	p. 43
Rotor Systems	p. 45
Introduction	p. 45
Rotational Airflow (Vr)	p. 46
Blade Angle of Attack	p. 46
Induced Flow	p. 47
Airflow Caused by Aircraft Velocity	p. 48
The Forces	p. 48
Total Rotor Thrust	p. 49
Rotor Drag (Torque)	p. 49
Angle of Attack and the Rotor Thrust/Rotor Drag Ratio	p. 50
Induced Flow and the Rotor Thrust/Rotor Drag Ratio	p. 50
Inflow Angle	p. 51
The Force Opposing Weight	p. 52
Factors Influencing Rotor Thrust	p. 53
Air Density	p. 53
Rotor rpm	p. 54
Blade Angle	p. 54
Disc Area	p. 54
Significant Aspects of High Inertia Blades	p. 55
Conclusion	p. 55
	p. 56
Rotor Blade Airfoils	p. 57
Drag Factors	p. 57
Stress Factors	p. 58
Effect of Local Air Velocity on Blade Design	p. 59
Blade Tip Speeds	p. 59
Development in Blade Design	p. 60
	p. 60
Rotor Drag (Torque)	p. 61
Disc Loading Changes	p. 61
Changes in Gross Weight	p. 62
Changes in Altitude	p. 62
Changes in Configuration	p. 62
Ground Effect	p. 62
Translational Lift	p. 64
Summary	p. 65
	p. 66
The Anti-Torque Rotor	p. 67
Anti-Torque Functions	p. 67
Mechanical Considerations	p. 68
Anti-Torque and Demand for Power	p. 68
Effect of the Wind	p. 69
Translating Tendency (Tail Rotor Drift)	p. 70
Rolling Tendency	p. 71
Tail Rotor Flapping	p. 71
Shrouded Tail Rotors	p. 72
Tail Rotor Design	p. 72
Other Methods of Anti-Torque Control	p. 72
Strakes and Anti-Torque	p. 73
Tail Rotor Failure	p. 74
	p. 76
Controls and Their Effects	p. 77
Collective Control	p. 77
Cyclic Control	p. 78
Effect of Controls on Blade Lead-Lag Behavior	p. 78
Mean Lag Position	p. 78
The Four Main Causes of Movement about the Lead/Lag Hinge	p. 78
Conservation of Angular Momentum (Coriolis Effect)	p. 78
Hookes Joint Effect	p. 79
Periodic Drag Changes	p. 80
Random Changes	p. 80
	p. 80
The Hover	p. 81
Hover Our-of Ground Effect (OGE) and In-Ground Effect (IGE)	p. 81
Factors Affecting Ground Effect	p. 82
Helicopter Height Above Ground Level	p. 82
Density Altitude and Gross Weight	p. 82
Gross Weight and Power Required	p. 83
Nature of the Surface	p. 83
Slope	p. 83
Wind Effect	p. 84
Confined Areas - Recirculation	p. 84
Factors Determining the Degree of Recirculation	p. 84
Over-Pitching	p. 85
	p. 86
Forward Flight	p. 87
Three Basic Aspects of Horizontal Flight	p. 89
Tilting the Disc with Cyclic	p. 89
An Alternate Explanation of Cyclic Action	p. 91
Dissymmetry of Lift	p. 91
Eliminating Dissymmetry of Lift	p. 92
Blow-Back (Flap Back)	p. 94
Blow-back (Flap-Back) When Using Collective	p. 95
Summary	p. 96
Designs that Reduce Flapping Amplitude	p. 96
Delta-3 Hinges	p. 96
Offset Pitch Horns	p. 97
Reverse Flow	p. 98
Translational Lift	p. 99
Transverse Flow Effect	p. 101
	p. 102
Power, Range and Endurance	p. 103
Power	p. 103
Ancillary Power	p. 103
Profile Power	p. 103
Induced Power	p. 104
Parasite Power	p. 104
The Total Horsepower Required Curve (the HPR)	p. 105
Attitude	p. 106
Weight	p. 107
Slingload and Parasite Drag Items	p. 107
Flying the Helicopter for Range	p. 108
Effect of the Wind	p. 109
Engine Considerations	p. 110
Range Summary	p. 110
Flying the Helicopter for Endurance	p. 111
Endurance Summary	p. 111
	p. 112
Climbing and Descending	p. 113
Climbing	p. 113
The Horsepower Available Curve (The HPA)	p. 114
Factors Affecting the Horsepower Available Curve	p. 114
Altitude	p. 114
Density Altitude	p. 115
Leaning the Mixture	p. 115
Collective Setting	p. 115
Rate of Climb	p. 115
Angle of Climb	p. 116
Effect of Lowering Horsepower Available Curve	p. 116
Summary	p. 117
Effect of the Wind	p. 117
Climb Performance Summary	p. 118
Descending	p. 118
Angle of Descent	p. 119
Effect of the Wind on Descents	p. 120
Descent Performance Summary	p. 121
	p. 122
Maneuvers	p. 123
Turning	p. 123
Rate of Turn	p. 124
Radius of Turn	p. 125
Rate and Radius Interaction	p. 125
The Steep Turn	p. 125
Power Requirement	p. 126
The Climbing Turn	p. 127
The Descending Turn	p. 127
Effect of Altitude on Rate of Turn and Radius of Turn	p. 127
Effect of Changes in Gross Weight on Rate and Radius	p. 128
Effect of the Wind on Rate and Radius	p. 128
Effect of the Wind on Indicated Airspeed and Translational Lift	p. 129
Effect of Slingloads	p. 130
Effect of Slipping and Skidding	p. 131
Pull-Out from a Descent	p. 131
	p. 132
The Flare	p. 133
Initial Action	p. 133
Flare Effects	p. 133
Thrust Reversal	p. 134
Increasing Total Rotor Thrust	p. 134
Increasing Rotor rpm	p. 134
Management of Collective	p. 135
	p. 136
Retreating Blade Stall	p. 137
Effect of Increasing Airspeed on Stall Angle	p. 137
Factors Affecting the Advancing Blade	p. 138
Symptoms of Retreating Blade Stall	p. 138
Recovery	p. 139
Factors Influencing V[subscript ne]	p. 140
Conclusion	p. 141
	p. 142
Autorotation	p. 143
Initial Aircraft Reaction	p. 143
The Lift/Drag Ratio and Forces Involved	p. 143
The Stalled Region	p. 144
The Driven (Propeller) Region	p. 145
The Driving (Autorotative) Region	p. 145
Combined Effects of All Regions	p. 146
Autorotation and Airspeed	p. 148
Combined Effect	p. 149
Effect of Forward Speed on the Three Regions	p. 150
Effect of Airspeed Changes on Rotor rpm	p. 150
Autorotation Range and Endurance	p. 150
Effect of Altitude on Range and Endurance	p. 151
Effect of Gross Weight on Range and Endurance	p. 151
Effect of Parasite Drag and Slingloads on Range and Endurance	p. 152
Touchdown	p. 152
Loss of Power at Low Heights	p. 153
Factors Influencing Rotor rpm Decay When the Engine Fails	p. 153
Combination of Airspeed and Height Best Avoided	p. 153
	p. 156
Hazardous Flight Conditions	p. 157
Vortex Ring State	p. 157
Effect on the Root Section of the Blade	p. 158
Effect on the Tip Section of the Blade	p. 158
Flight Conditions Likely to Lead to Vortex Ring State	p. 160
Symptoms of Vortex Ring State	p. 160
Recovery from Vortex Ring State	p. 161
Tail Rotor Vortex Ring State	p. 161
Ground Resonance	p. 162
Causes of Ground Resonance	p. 162
Factors that May Cause Ground Resonance	p. 163
Rotor Head Vibrations	p. 163
Fuselage Factors	p. 163
Ground Resonance Recovery Action	p. 164
Blade Sailing	p. 164
Dynamic Rollover	p. 165
Factors Influencing the Critical Angle	p. 165
Cyclic Limitations	p. 166
Mast Bumping	p. 167
Avoiding Mast Bumping	p. 169
Recovery from Low and Zero g	p. 169
Mast Bumping Summary	p. 169
Exceeding Rotor rpm Limits	p. 169
Reasons for High Rotor rpm Limits	p. 169
Engine Considerations	p. 169
Blade Attachment Stress	p. 169
Sonic Problems	p. 170
Reasons for Low Rotor rpm Limits	p. 170
Insufficient Centrifugal Force	p. 170
Reduced Tail Rotor Thrust	p. 170
Rotor Stalls	p. 170
Recovery from Low Rotor rpm	p. 171
	p. 172
Helicopter Design and Components	p. 173
Transmission	p. 173
Main Rotor Gear Box	p. 173
Freewheeling Unit	p. 174
Drive Shafts	p. 174
Tail Rotor Gear Box	p. 174
Rotor Brake	p. 174
Clutch	p. 174
Chip Detectors	p. 175
Governors	p. 175
Swashplate (Control Orbit)	p. 176
Phase Lag	p. 177
Advance Angle	p. 177
Rotor Blades	p. 179
Chordwise Blade Balancing	p. 180
Spanwise Blade Balancing	p. 180
Trim Controls	p. 180
Bias Control	p. 180
Electronic Servo Systems	p. 180
Tail Rotors	p. 181
Tail Rotor Flapping	p. 181
Tail Rotor Rotation	p. 181
Helicopter Vibrations	p. 181
Types of Vibrations	p. 182
Vertical Vibrations	p. 182
Lateral Vibrations	p. 183
Combined Vertical and Lateral Vibrations	p. 183
High Frequency Vibrations	p. 183
Engine Vibrations	p. 184
Remedial Action by the Pilot	p. 184
Control Functions	p. 184
Collective	p. 184
Twist Grip Throttle	p. 184
Engine Cooling	p. 185
Carburetor Icing	p. 185
Dual Tachometer Instruments	p. 186
Rotor Stabilizing Design Systems	p. 187
The Bell Stabilizing Bar	p. 187
The Hiller System	p. 187
The Underslung Rotor System	p. 188
Rotorless Anti-Torque System	p. 189
Advantages of the Notar System	p. 189
Components	p. 189
Air Intake	p. 190
Engine-driven Fan	p. 190
Slots	p. 190
Direct Jet Thruster	p. 191
Vertical Stabilizers	p. 191
Undercarriages	p. 192
Skids	p. 192
Wheels	p. 192
Oleo (Shock) Struts	p. 193
	p. 195
Stability	p. 195
Static Stability	p. 195
Dynamic Stability	p. 195
Stability in the Three Planes of Movement	p. 196
Longitudinal Stability	p. 197
Longitudinal Stability Aids	p. 197
Lateral Stability	p. 198
Directional Stability	p. 199
Directional Stability Aids	p. 200
Cross Coupling with Lateral Stability	p. 200
Offset Flapping Hinges	p. 200
	p. 202
Special Helicopter Techniques	p. 203
Crosswind Factors	p. 203
Lateral Blow-back (Flap-back)	p. 203
Weathervane Action	p. 203
Effect on tail Rotor Thrust	p. 203
Different Types of Takeoffs and Landings	p. 204
Downwind Takeoffs and Landings	p. 204
Running Takeoff	p. 204
Cushion-Creep Takeoff	p. 205
Confined Area Takeoff (Towering Takeoff)	p. 205
Maximum Performance Takeoff	p. 206
Running Landing	p. 206
The Zero-Speed Landing	p. 207
Operations on Sloping Surfaces	p. 207
Sling Operations	p. 208
The Equipment	p. 208
The Sling	p. 210
Ground Handling	p. 211
Flying Techniques	p. 212
Snagging of Cable or Strap on the Undercarriage before Liftoff	p. 212
Never-Exceed Speed (V[subscript ne])	p. 213
Preflight Rigging	p. 213
Length of Cable or Strap	p. 213
Number and Type of Slings	p. 213
Nets	p. 213
Pallets	p. 214
Load Center of Gravity	p. 214
Pilot Action in Case of Helicopter Oscillation	p. 214
The Approach	p. 215
Types of Slingload	p. 215
Horizontal Loads	p. 215
Unusual Loads	p. 216
Conclusion	p. 219
	p. 220
Mountain Flying	p. 221
Updrafts and Downdrafts	p. 221
Thermal Currents	p. 223
Katabatic and Anabatic Winds	p. 224
Mechanical Turbulence	p. 224
Wind Strength	p. 225
Size and Shape of Mountains	p. 226
Stability or Instability of Air	p. 226
Wind Direction Relative to Mountain Orientation	p. 227
Summary	p. 227
Valley Flying	p. 227
Ridgeline Flying	p. 228
The "Standard" Mountain Approach	p. 228
General Coinments on Mountain Approaches	p. 230
High Attitude Approach Considerations	p. 230
Transition	p. 232
Ground Effect Considerations on Mountain Sites	p. 232
Determining Wind Change during Critical Phases	p. 233
Landing Site Selection	p. 233
Surface of Sites	p. 233
Flight in Areas Covered in Snow and Ice	p. 234
Survival Equipment	p. 235
	p. 236
Helicopter Icing	p. 237
Ice Accretion	p. 237
Influence of Temperature and Drop Size	p. 237
Water Content of Air	p. 238
Kinetic Heating	p. 238
Shape of Airfoils and Other Aircraft Components	p. 238
Mechanical Flexion and Vibration	p. 239
Ice Formation on Blades at Different Temperatures	p. 239
Electrical Anti-Icing	p. 240
Consequences of Ice Accretion	p. 240
Engine Intake Icing	p. 241
	p. 242
Helicopter Performance	p. 243
Helicopter Performance Factors	p. 243
Altitude	p. 243
Pressure Altitude	p. 244
Density Altitude	p. 246
Combined Effect of Pressure and Density Altitude	p. 247
Moisture Content of Air	p. 248
Aircraft Gross Weight	p. 248
External Stores	p. 248
The Wind	p. 249
Power Check	p. 249
Performance Graphs	p. 250
Units of Measurement	p. 251
Hover Ceiling Graph	p. 252
Takeoff Distance over a 50-Foot Obstacle	p. 254
Turbine Engine Power Check	p. 256
Maximum Gross Weight for Hovering	p. 258
Climb Performance	p. 260
Range	p. 261
Endurance	p. 262
	p. 263
Weight and Balance	p. 265
Definitions	p. 265
Weight	p. 267
Balance	p. 267
Beyond the Center of Gravity Limits	p. 268
Excessive Forward Center of Gravity	p. 268
Excessive Aft Center of Gravity	p. 269
Summary	p. 269
Calculating the Center of Gravity Position	p. 269
To Calculate the Longitudinal Center of Gravity Position	p. 271
To Calculate the Lateral Takeoff Center of Gravity Position	p. 271
Summary	p. 273
Effect of External Loads on Center of Gravity Position	p. 273
Conclusion	p. 274
	p. 274
Sample Examination	p. 277
Temperature Conversion	p. 287
Altimeter Setting Conversion	p. 289
Review and Examination Answers	p. 291
Glossary	p. 295
Index	p. 299
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Principles of Helicopter Flight

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials