Protective Relaying: Theory and Applications

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ISBN: 9780824709723 | 0824709721
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 9/9/2003

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Targeting the latest microprocessor technologies for more sophisticated applications in the field of power system short circuit detection, this revised and updated source imparts fundamental concepts and breakthrough science for the isolation of faulty equipment and minimization of damage in power system apparatus.

Preface

iii

1 Introduction and General Philosophies

(10)

Revised by W. A. Elmore

1 Introduction

(1)

2 Classification of Relays

(1)

2.1 Analog/Digital/Numerical

(1)

3 Protective Relaying Systems and Their Design

(2)

3.1 Design Criteria

(1)

3.2 Factors Influencing Relay Performance

(1)

3.3 Zones of Protection

(1)

4 Applying Protective Relays

(2)

4.1 System Configuration

(1)

4.2 Existing System Protection and Procedures

(1)

4.3 Degree of Protection Required

(1)

4.4 Fault Study

(1)

4.5 Maximum Loads, Transformer Data, and Impedances

(1)

5 Relays and Application Data

(3)

5.1 Switchboard Relays

(1)

5.2 Rack-Mounted Relays

(2)

6 Circuit-Breaker Control

(1)

7 Comparison of Symbols

(2)

2 Technical Tools of the Relay Engineer: Phasors, Polarity, and Symmetrical Components

(32)

Revised by W. A. Elmore

1 Introduction

(1)

2 Phasors

(4)

2.1 Circuit Diagram Notation for Current and Flux

(1)

2.2 Circuit Diagram Notation for Voltage

(1)

2.3 Phasor Notation

(1)

2.4 Phasor Diagram Notation

(2)

2.5 Phase Rotation vs. Phasor Rotation

(1)

3 Polarity in Relay Circuits

(3)

3.1 Polarity of Transformers

(1)

3.2 Polarity of Protective Relays

(1)

3.3 Characteristics of Directional Relays

(1)

3.4 Connections of Directional Units to Three-Phase Power Systems

(1)

4 Faults on Power Systems

(3)

4.1 Fault Types and Causes

(2)

4.2 Characteristics of Faults

(1)

5 Symmetrical Components

(21)

5.1 Basic Concepts

(2)

5.2 System Neutral

(1)

5.3 Sequences in a Three-Phase Power System

(1)

5.4 Sequence Impedances

(2)

5.5 Sequence Networks

(1)

5.6 Sequence Network Connections and Voltages

(1)

5.7 Network Connections for Fault and General Unbalances

(1)

5.8 Sequence Network Reduction

(3)

5.9 Example of Fault Calculation on a Loop-Type Power System

(5)

5.10 Phase Shifts Through Transformer Banks

(2)

5.11 Fault Evaluations

(3)

6 Symmetrical Components and Relaying

(1)

3 Basic Relay Units

(28)

Revised by W. A. Elmore

1 Introduction

(1)

2 Electromechanical Units

(4)

2.1 Magnetic Attraction Units

(2)

2.2 Magnetic Induction Units

(2)

2.3 D'Arsonval Units

(1)

2.4 Thermal Units

(1)

3 Sequence Networks

(3)

3.1 Zero Sequence Networks

(1)

3.2 Composite Sequence Current Networks

(1)

3.3 Sequence Voltage Networks

(1)

4 Solid-State Units

(4)

4.1 Semiconductor Components

(2)

4.2 Solid-State Logic Units

(1)

4.3 Principal Logic Units

(2)

5 Basic Logic Circuits

(9)

5.1 Fault-Sensing Data Processing Units

(5)

5.2 Amplification Units

(1)

5.3 Auxiliary Units

(4)

6 Integrated Circuits

(7)

6.1 Operational Amplifier

(2)

6.2 Basic Operational Amplifier Units

(3)

6.3 Relay Applications of Operational Amplifier

(2)

7 Microprocessor Architecture

(1)

4 Protection Against Transients and Surges 71

W. A. Elmore

1 Introduction

(2)

1.1 Electrostatic Induction

(1)

1.2 Electromagnetic Induction

(1)

1.3 Differential- and Common-Mode Classifications

(1)

2 Transients Originating in the High-Voltage System

(1)

2.1 Capacitor Switching

(1)

2.2 Bus Deenergization

(1)

2.3 Transmission Line Switching

2.4 Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CCVT) Switching

(60)

2.5 Other Transient Sources

(1)

3 Transients Originating in the Low-Voltage System

(1)

3.1 Direct Current Coil Interruption

(1)

3.2 Direct Current Circuit Energization

(1)

3.3 Current Transformer Saturation

(1)

3.4 Grounding of Battery Circuit

(1)

4 Protective Measures

(6)

4.1 Separation

(2)

4.2 Suppression at the Source

(1)

4.3 Suppression by Shielding

(1)

4.4 Suppression by Twisting

(1)

4.5 Radial Routing of Control Cables

(1)

4.6 Buffers

(1)

4.7 Optical Isolators

(1)

4.8 Increased Energy Requirement

(2)

5 Instrument Transformers for Relaying

(14)

W. A. Elmore

1 Introduction

(1)

2 Current Transformers

(1)

2.1 Saturation

(1)

2.2 Effect of do Component

(1)

3 Equivalent Circuit

(1)

4 Estimation of Current Transformer Performance

(5)

4.1 Formula Method

(1)

4.2 Excitation Curve Method

(2)

4.3 ANSI Standard: Current Transformer Accuracy Classes

(2)

5 European Practice

(1)

5.1 TPX

(1)

5.2 TPY

(1)

5.3 TPZ

(1)

6 Direct Current Saturation

(1)

7 Residual Flux

(2)

8 MOCT

(1)

9 Voltage Transformers and Coupling Capacitance Voltage Transformers

(2)

9.1 Equivalent Circuit of a Voltage Transformer

(1)

9.2 Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers

(1)

9.3 MOVT/EOVT

(1)

10 Neutral Inversion

(2)

6 Microprocessor Relaying Fundamentals

(10)

W. A. Elmore

1 Introduction

(2)

2 Sampling Problems

(1)

3 Aliasing

(1)

4 How to Overcome Aliasing

(1)

4.1 Antialiasing Filters

(1)

4.2 Nonsynchronous Sampling

(1)

5 Choice of Measurement Principle

(4)

5.1 rms Calculation

100

(1)

5.2 Digital Filters

100

(1)

5.3 Fourier-Notch Filter

100

(1)

5.4 Another Digital Filter

101

(1)

5.5 dc Offset Compensation

101

(1)

5.6 Symmetrical Component Filter

102

(1)

5.7 Leading-Phase Identification

102

(1)

5.8 Fault Detectors

102

(1)

6 Self Testing

103

(1)

6.1 Dead-Man Timer

103

(1)

6.2 Analog Test

103

(1)

6.3 Check-Sum

103

(1)

6.4 RAM Test

103

(1)

6.5 Nonvolatile Memory Test

103

(1)

7 Conclusions

104

(1)

7 System Grounding and Protective Relaying

105

(12)

Revised by W. A. Elmore

1 Introduction

105

(1)

2 Ungrounded Systems

105

(3)

2.1 Ground Faults on Ungrounded Systems

105

2.2 Ground Fault Detection on Ungrounded Systems

101

(7)

3 Reactance Grounding

108

(2)

3.1 High-Reactance Grounding

108

(1)

3.2 Resonant Grounding (Ground Fault Neutralizer)

109

(1)

3.3 Low-Reactance Grounding

109

(1)

4 Resistance Grounding

110

(2)

4.1 Low-Resistance Grounding

110

(1)

4.2 High-Resistance Grounding

111

(1)

5 Sensitive Ground Relaying

112

(2)

5.1 Ground Overcurrent Relay with Conventional Current Transformers

112

(1)

5.2 Ground Product Relay with Conventional Current Transformers

113

(1)

5.3 Ground Overcurrent Relay with Zero Sequence Current Transformers

114

(1)

6 Ground Fault Protection for Three-Phase, Four-Wire Systems

114

(3)

6.1 Unigrounded Four-Wire Systems

114

(1)

6.2 Multigrounded Four-Wire Systems

115

(2)

8 Generator Protection

117

(28)

Revised by C. L. Downs

1 Introduction

117

(1)

2 Choice of Technology

117

(1)

3 Phase Fault Detection

117

(3)

3.1 Percentage Differential Relays (Device 87)

118

(1)

3.2 High Impedance Differential Relays (Device 81)

119

(1)

3.3 Machine Connections

119

(1)

3.4 Split-Phase

119

(1)

4 Stator Ground Fault Protection

120

(3)

4.1 Unit-Connected Schemes

120

(1)

4.2 95% Ground Relays

120

(1)

4.3 Neutral-to-Ground Fault Detection (Device 87N3)

121

(1)

4.4 100% Winding Protection

122

(1)

5 Backup Protection

123

(3)

5.1 Unbalanced Faults

123

(1)

5.2 Balanced Faults

124

(2)

6 Overload Protection

126

(1)

6.1 RTD Schemes (Device 49)

126

(1)

6.2 Thermal Replicas (Device 49)

126

(1)

7 Volts per Hertz Protection

126

(1)

8 Overspeed Protection

126

(1)

9 Loss-of-Excitation Protection

127

(3)

9.1 Causes of Machine Loss of Field

127

(1)

9.2 Hazard

127

(1)

9.3 Loss-of-Field Relays

128

(1)

9.4 KLF and KLF-1 Curves

129

(1)

9.5 Two-Zone KLF Scheme

129

(1)

10 Protection Against Generator Motoring

130

(2)

10.1 Steam Turbines

131

(1)

10.2 Diesel Engines

131

(1)

10.3 Gas Turbines

131

(1)

10.4 Hydraulic Turbines

131

(1)

11 Inadvertent Energization

132

(2)

12 Field Ground Detection

134

(2)

12.1 Brush-Type Machine

135

(1)

12.2 Brushless Machines

136

(1)

12.3 Injection Scheme for Field Ground Detection

136

(1)

13 Alternating-Current Overvoltage Protection for Hydroelectric Generators

136

(1)

14 Generator Protection at Reduced Frequencies

136

(2)

15 Off Frequency Operation

138

(1)

16 Recommended Protection

139

(1)

17 Out-of-Step Protection

139

(1)

18 Bus Transfer Systems for Station Auxiliaries

139

(4)

18.1 Fast Transfer

139

(1)

18.2 Choice of Fast Transfer Scheme

140

(2)

18.3 Slow Transfer

142

(1)

19 Microprocessor-Based Generator Protection

143

(2)

9 Motor Protection

145

(18)

Revised by C. L. Downs

1 Introduction

145

(2)

1.1 General Requirements

145

(1)

1.2 Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit

146

(1)

1.3 Motor Thermal Capability Curves

146

(1)

2 Phase-Fault Protection

147

(1)

3 Ground-Fault Protection

147

(2)

4 Locked-Rotor Protection

149

(4)

5 Overload Protection

153

(1)

6 Thermal Relays

153

(2)

6.1 RTD-Input-Type Relays

154

(1)

6.2 Thermal Replica Relays

154

(1)

7 Low-Voltage Protection

155

(1)

8 Phase-Rotation Protection

155

(1)

9 Negative Sequence Voltage Protection

155

(1)

10 Phase-Unbalance Protection

156

(1)

11 Negative Sequence Current Relays

157

(1)

12 Jam Protection

157

(1)

13 Load Loss Protection

157

(1)

14 Out-of-Step Protection

158

(1)

15 Loss of Excitation

158

(1)

16 Typical Application Combinations

159

(4)

10 Transformer and Reactor Protection

163

(50)

Revised by J. J. McGowan

1 Introduction

163

(1)

2 Magnetizing Inrush

163

(3)

2.1 Initial Inrush

163

(2)

2.2 Recovery Inrush

165

(1)

2.3 Sympathetic Inrush

165

(1)

3 Differential Relaying for Transformer Protection

166

(7)

3.1 Differential Relays for Transformer Protection

166

(5)

3.2 General Guidelines for Transformer Differential Relaying Application

171

(2)

4 Sample Checks for Applying Transformer Differential Relays

173

(7)

4.1 Checks for Two-Winding Banks

173

(5)

4.2 Checks for Multiwinding Banks

178

(2)

4.3 Modern Microprocessor Relay

180

(1)

5 Typical Application of Transformer Protection

180

(13)

5.1 Differential Scheme with Harmonic Restraint Relay Supervision

180

(2)

5.2 Ground Source on Delta Side

182

(1)

5.3 Three-Phase Banks of Single-Phase Units

183

(1)

5.4 Differential Protection of a Generator-Transformer Unit

183

(1)

5.5 Overexcitation Protection of a Generator-Transformer Unit

184

(1)

5.6 Sudden-Pressure Relay (SPR)

185

(1)

5.7 Overcurrent and Backup Protection

185

(7)

5.8 Distance Relaying for Backup Protection

192

(1)

5.9 Overcurrent Relay with HRU Supplement

192

(1)

6 Typical Protective Schemes for Industrial and Commercial Power Transformers

193

(4)

7 Remote Tripping of Transformer Bank

197

(1)

8 Protection of Phase-Angle Regulators and Voltage Regulators

197

(5)

9 Zig-Zag Transformer Protection

202

(1)

10 Protection of Shunt Reactors

203

(10)

10.1 Shunt Reactor Applications

203

(2)

10.2 Rate-of-Rise-of-Pressure Protection

205

(1)

10.3 Overcurrent Protection

205

(1)

10.4 Differential Protection

206

(1)

10.5 Reactors on Delta System

207

(2)

10.6 Turn-to-Turn Faults

209

(4)

11 Station-Bus Protection

213

(16)

Revised by Solveig Ward

1 Introduction

213

(3)

1.1 Current Transformer Saturation Problem and Its Solutions on Bus Protection

213

(2)

1.2 Information Required for the Preparation of a Bus Protective Scheme

215

(1)

1.3 Normal Practices on Bus Protection

215

(1)

2 Bus Differential Relaying with Overcurrent Relays

216

(1)

2.1 Overcurrent Differential Protection

216

(1)

2.2 Improved Overcurrent Differential Protection

216

(1)

3 Multirestraint Differential System

217

(2)

4 High Impedance Differential System

219

(3)

4.1 Factors that Relate to the Relay Setting

221

(1)

4.2 Factors that Relate to the High-Voltage Problem

221

(1)

4.3 Setting Example for the KAB Bus Protection

222

(1)

5 Differential Comparator Relays

222

(1)

6 Protecting a Bus that Includes a Transformer Bank

223

(1)

7 Protecting a Double-Bus Single-Breaker with Bus Tie Arrangement

224

(2)

8 Other Bus Protective Schemes

226

(3)

8.1 Partial Differential Relaying

226

(1)

8.2 Directional Comparison Relaying

227

(1)

8.3 Fault Bus (Ground-Fault Protection Only)

227

(2)

12 Line and Circuit Protection

229

(94)

Revised by Elmo Price

1 Introduction

229

(2)

1.1 Classification of Electric Power Lines

229

(1)

1.2 Techniques for Line Protection

229

(1)

1.3 Selecting a Protective System

229

(1)

1.4 Relays for Phase- and Ground-Fault Protection

230

(1)

1.5 Multiterminal and Tapped Lines and Weak Feed

230

(1)

2 Overcurrent Phase- and Ground-Fault Protection

231

(8)

2.1 Fault Detection

231

(1)

2.2 Time Overcurrent Protection

232

(5)

2.3 Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection

237

(1)

2.4 Overcurrent Ground-Fault Protection

238

(1)

3 Directional Overcurrent Phase- and Ground-Fault Protection

239

(8)

3.1 Criteria for Phase Directional Overcurrent Relay Applications

239

(1)

3.2 Criteria for Ground Directional Overcurrent Relay Applications

239

(1)

3.3 Directional Ground-Relay Polarization

239

(4)

3.4 Mutual Induction and Ground-Relay Directional Sensing

243

(1)

3.5 Applications of Negative Sequence Directional Units for Ground Relays

244

(1)

3.6 Selection of Directional Overcurrent Phase and Ground Relays

244

(3)

4 Distance Phase and Ground Protection

247

(20)

4.1 Fundamentals of Distance Relaying

247

(3)

4.2 Phase-Distance Relays

250

(4)

4.3 Ground-Distance Relays

254

(3)

4.4 Effect of Line Length

257

(3)

4.5 The Infeed Effect on Distance-Relay Application

260

(1)

4.6 The Outfeed Effect on Distance-Relay Applications

261

(1)

4.7 Effect of Tapped Transformer Bank on Relay Application

261

(1)

4.8 Distance Relays with Transformer Banks at the Terminal

262

(3)

4.9 Fault Resistance and Ground-Distance Relays

265

(1)

4.10 Zero Sequence Mutual Impedance and Ground-Distance Relays

265

(2)

5 Loop-System Protection

267

(3)

5.1 Single-Source Loop-Circuit Protection

267

(2)

5.2 Multiple-Source Loop Protection

269

(1)

6 Short-Line Protection

270

(3)

6.1 Definition of Short Line

270

(1)

6.2 Problem Associated with Short-Line Protection

270

(1)

6.3 Current-Only Scheme for Short-Line Protection

270

(1)

6.4 Distance Relay for Short-Line Protection

270

(3)

7 Series-Capacitor Compensated-Line Protection

273

(3)

7.1 A Series-Capacitor Compensated Line

273

(1)

7.2 Relaying Quantities Under Fault Conditions

273

(2)

7.3 Distance Protection Behavior

275

(1)

7.4 Practical Considerations

276

(1)

8 Distribution Feeder Protection

276

(5)

8.1 Relay Coordination with Reclosers and Sectionalizers on a Feeder

277

(1)

8.2 Coordinating with Low-Voltage Breaker and Fuse

277

(4)

Appendix A: Equation (12-2)

281

(1)

Appendix B: Impedance Unit Characteristics

281

(25)

B.1 Introduction

281

(3)

B.2 Basic Application Example of a Phase Comparator

284

(1)

B.3 Basic Application Example of a Magnitude Comparator

285

(1)

B.4 Practical Comparator Applications in Distance Relaying

285

(9)

B.5 Reverse Characteristics of an Impedance Unit

294

(4)

B.6 Response of Distance Units to Different Types of Faults

298

(4)

B.7 The Influence of Current Distribution Factors and Load Flow

302

(3)

B.8 Derived Characteristics

305

(1)

B.9 Apparent Impedance

305

(1)

B.10 Summary

306

(1)

Appendix C: Infeed Effect on Ground-Distance Relays

306

(2)

C.1 Infeed Effect on Type KDXG, LDAR, and MDAR Ground-Distance Relays

306

(1)

C.2 Infeed Effect on Type SDG and LDG Ground-Distance Relays

307

(1)

Appendix D: Coordination in Multiple-Loop Systems

308

(15)

D.1 System Information

308

(1)

D.2 Relay Type Selection

308

(1)

D.3 Relay Setting and Coordination

309

(14)

13 Backup Protection

323

(16)

Revised by E. D. Price

1 Introduction

323

(1)

2 Remote vs. Local Backup

323

(4)

2.1 Remote Backup

323

(1)

2.2 Local Backup and Breaker Failure

324

(2)

2.3 Applications Requiring Remote Backup with Breaker-Failure Protection

326

(1)

3 Breaker-Failure Relaying Applications

327

(2)

3.1 Single-Line/Single-Breaker Buses

327

(1)

3.2 Breaker-and-a-Half and Ring Buses

328

(1)

4 Traditional Breaker-Failure Scheme

329

(3)

4.1 Timing Characteristics of the Traditional Breaker-Failure Scheme

329

(1)

4.2 Traditional Breaker-Failure Relay Characteristics

330

(1)

4.3 Microprocessor Relays

331

(1)

5 An Improved Breaker-Failure Scheme

332

(4)

5.1 Problems in the Traditional Breaker-Failure Scheme

332

(1)

5.2 The Improved Breaker-Failure Scheme

333

(1)

5.3 Type SBF-1 Relay

334

(2)

6 Open Conductor and Breaker Pole Disagreement Protection

336

(1)

7 Special Breaker-Failure Scheme for Single-Pole Trip-System Application

337

(2)

14 System Stability and Out-of-Step Relaying

339

(14)

W. A. Elmore

1 Introduction

339

(1)

2 Steady-State Stability

339

(1)

3 Transient Stability

340

(1)

4 Relay Quantities During Swings

341

(2)

5 Effect of Out-of-Step Conditions

343

(2)

5.1 Distance Relays

343

(1)

5.2 Directional Comparison Systems

344

(1)

5.3 Phase-Comparison or Pilot-Wire Systems

344

(1)

5.4 Underreaching Transfer-Trip Schemes

344

(1)

5.5 Circuit Breakers

344

(1)

5.6 Overcurrent Relays

344

(1)

5.7 Reclosing

344

(1)

6 Out-of-Step Relaying

345

(1)

6.1 Generator Out-of-Step Relaying

345

(1)

6.2 Transmission-Line Out-of-Step Relaying

346

(1)

7 Philosophies of Out-of-Step Relaying

346

(1)

7.1 Utility Practice

347

(1)

8 Types of Out-of-Step Schemes

347

(1)

8.1 Concentric Circle Scheme

347

(1)

8.2 Blinder Scheme

348

(1)

9 Relays for Out-of-Step Systems

348

(3)

9.1 Electromechanical Types

348

(1)

9.2 Solid-State Types

349

(2)

10 Selection of an Out-of-Step Relay System

351

(2)

15 Voltage Stability

353

(12)

L. Wang

1 Introduction

353

(4)

1.1 Small-Disturbance Instability

353

(2)

1.2 Large-Disturbance Instability

355

(1)

1.3 Voltage Instability Incidents

356

(1)

2 Voltage Instability Indices

357

(5)

2.1 Indices Based on Current Operating Condition

357

(3)

2.2 Indices Based on Stressed System Conditions

360

(2)

2.3 Summary

362

(1)

3 Voltage Instability Protection

362

(3)

3.1 Reactive Power Control

362

(1)

3.2 Load Tap Changer Blocking Schemes

362

(1)

3.3 Load Shedding

362

(3)

16 Reclosing and Synchronizing

365

(16)

Revised by S. Ward

1 Introduction

365

(1)

2 Reclosing Precautions

365

(1)

3 Reclosing System Considerations

366

(2)

3.1 One-Shot vs. Multiple-Shot Reclosing Relays

366

(1)

3.2 Selective Reclosing

366

(1)

3.3 Deionizing Times for Three-Pole Reclosing

366

(1)

3.4 Synchronism Check

366

(1)

3.5 Live-Line/Dead-Bus, Live-Bus/Dead-Line Control

367

(1)

3.6 Instantaneous-Trip Lockout

367

(1)

3.7 Intermediate Lockout

367

(1)

3.8 Compatibility with Supervisory Control

367

(1)

3.9 Inhibit Control

368

(1)

3.10 Breaker Supervision Functions

368

(1)

3.11 Factors Governing Application of Reclosing

368

(1)

4 Considerations for Applications of Instantaneous Reclosing

368

(1)

4.1 Feeders with No-Fault-Power Back-Feed and Minimum Motor Load

369

(1)

4.2 Single Ties to Industrial Plants with Local Generation

369

(1)

4.3 Lines with Sources at Both Ends

369

(1)

5 Reclosing Relays and Their Operation

369

(8)

5.1 Review of Breaker Operation

369

(1)

5.2 Single-Shot Reclosing Relays

369

(2)

5.3 Multishot Reclosing Relays

371

(6)

6 Synchronism Check

377

(2)

6.1 Phasing Voltage Synchronism Check Characteristic

377

(1)

6.2 Angular Synchronism Check Characteristic

378

(1)

7 Dead-Line or Dead-Bus Reclosing

379

(1)

8 Automatic Synchronizing

379

(2)

17 Load-Shedding and Frequency Relaying

381

(14)

Revised by W. A. Elmore

1 Introduction

381

(1)

2 Rate of Frequency Decline

381

(2)

3 Load-Shedding

383

(1)

4 Frequency Relays

384

(1)

4.1 KF Induction-Cylinder Underfrequency Relay

384

(1)

4.2 Digital Frequency Relays

385

(1)

4.3 Microprocessor-Based Frequency Relay

385

(1)

5 Formulating a Load-Shedding Scheme

385

(4)

5.1 Maximum Anticipated Overload

385

(1)

5.2 Number of Load-Shedding Steps

386

(1)

5.3 Size of the Load Shed at Each Step

386

(1)

5.4 Frequency Settings

387

(1)

5.5 Time Delay

388

(1)

5.6 Location of the Frequency Relays

388

(1)

6 Special Considerations for Industrial Systems

389

(1)

7 Restoring Service

390

(1)

8 Other Frequency Relay Applications

391

(4)

Bibliography

395

(4)

Index

399

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Protective Relaying: Theory and Applications

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials