Risk Communication : A Handbook for Communicating Environmental, Safety, and Health Risks, Fifth Edition
, by Lundgren, Regina E.; McMakin, Andrea H.
- ISBN: 9781118456934 | 1118456939
- Cover: Paperback
- Copyright: 7/29/2013
This fully-updated fifth edition includes real-life examples of current events such as the Japanese tsunami, the Gulf oil disaster, and Hurricane Irene, along with lessons learned from these events. The coverage also includes new chapters on public health campaigns, and on the use and effectiveness of social media such as blogging, video, and image sharing for risk communication purposes. Combing sound, scientific research with practical advice in an accessible format, this book is a must-read for practitioners, engineers, scientists, and public health agencies.
REGINA E. LUNDGREN is an independent consultant and trainer for both government and industry who specializes in communicating environmental, safety, and health risks, and is a former research scientist for the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory in Richland, Washington. Her publications have won national awards for their usability. She has led risk communication efforts for a variety of environmental, safety, and health issues, including Superfund cleanup, cancer cluster investigation, and bioterrorism planning as well as helped design risk assessment models for stakeholder use.
ANDREA H. McMAKIN is a communication specialist at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory in Richland, Washington. She works with government and industry clients on communicating risks and other information concerning science, technology, and business. She's contributed to risk communication programs involving cancer clusters, health and environmental impacts from waste and Superfund sites, international nuclear and biological safety, worker chemical exposure, global climate change, and risk perception research.
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF TABLES xvii
PREFACE xix
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
To Begin 2
The Risk Communication Process 5
Audiences, Situations, and Purposes 6
References 7
PART I UNDERSTANDING RISK COMMUNICATION
2 APPROACHES TO COMMUNICATING RISK 11
Communication Process Approach 12
National Research Council’s Approach 12
Mental Models Approach 13
Crisis Communication Approach 14
Convergence Communication Approach 15
Three-Challenge Approach 15
Social Constructionist Approach 16
Hazard Plus Outrage Approach 17
Mental Noise Approach 17
Social Network Contagion Approach 18
Social Amplifi cation of Risk Approach 18
Social Trust Approach 19
Evolutionary Theory Approach 20
Extended Parallel Process Model Approach 20
Summary 21
References 21
Additional Resources 22
3 LAWS THAT MANDATE RISK COMMUNICATION 23
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 24
Executive Order 12898, Environmental Justice in Minority Populations 25
Executive Order 13045, Reduce Environmental Health and Safety Risks to Children 26
Food and Drug Administration Regulations on Prescription Drug Communication 28
National Environmental Policy Act 28
Natural Resource Damage Assessment 30
Occupational Safety and Health Act 30
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 32
Risk Management Program Rule 32
Privacy Rule 32
Other Government Inducements 33
International Standards 33
North American Standards 34
Grants 34
Summary 35
References 35
Additional Resources 35
4 CONSTRAINTS TO EFFECTIVE RISK COMMUNICATION 37
Constraints on the Communicator 37
Organizational Constraints 38
Emotional Constraints 44
Constraints from the Audience 45
Hostility and Outrage 45
Panic and Denial 48
Apathy 48
Mistrust of Risk Assessment 49
Disagreements on the Acceptable Magnitude of Risk 50
Lack of Faith in Science and Institutions 50
Learning Diffi culties 51
Constraints for Both Communicator and Audience 51
Stigma 52
Stability of the Knowledge Base 52
Summary 53
References 53
Additional Resources 55
5 ETHICAL ISSUES 57
Social Ethics 58
The Sociopolitical Environment’s Influence 58
The Use of the Risk Idiom 60
Fairness of the Risk 61
Consequences of Multiple Meanings 62
The Issue of Stigma 63
Organizational Ethics 63
Legitimacy of Representation 64
Designation of Primary Audience 65
Releasing Information 66
Attitude toward Compliance with Regulations 67
Personal Ethics 68
Using Persuasion 68
The Role of the Communicator 68
Organizational Ethics or Personal Ethics? 69
Summary 69
References 69
Additional Resources 70
6 PRINCIPLES OF RISK COMMUNICATION 71
Principles of Process 72
Know Your Communication Limits and Purpose 72
Whenever Possible, Pretest Your Message 73
Communicate Early, Often, and Fully 73
Remember That Perception Is Reality 74
Principles of Presentation 74
Know Your Audience 75
Do Not Limit Yourself to One Form or One Method 75
Simplify Language and Presentation, Not Content 75
Be Objective, Not Subjective 75
Communicate Honestly, Clearly, and Compassionately 76
Listen and Deal with Specifi c Concerns 76
Convey the Same Information to All Segments of Your Audience 77
Deal with Uncertainty 77
Principles for Comparing Risks 78
Use Analogies, but Do Not Trivialize 78
Use Ranges 79
Compare with Standards 79
Compare with Other Estimates of the Same Risk 80
Compare Traits 80
Do Not Compare Risks with Different Levels of Associated Outrage 80
Explain Reductions in Magnitude 81
Summary 81
References 81
Additional Resources 82
PART II PLANNING THE RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORT
7 DETERMINE PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES 85
Factors That Influence Purpose and Objectives 86
Legal Issues 86
Organizational Requirements 86
The Risk Itself 87
Audience Requirements 88
Checklist for Determining Purpose and Objectives 89
Reference 90
Additional Resources 90
8 ANALYZE YOUR AUDIENCE 91
Begin with Purpose and Objectives 92
Choose a Level of Analysis 93
Determine Key Audience Characteristics 95
Determine How to Find Audience Analysis Information 95
Incorporate Audience Analysis Information into Risk Communication Efforts 101
Checklist for Analyzing Your Audience 103
References 103
Additional Resources 104
9 DEVELOP YOUR MESSAGE 105
Common Pitfalls 106
Information People Want 107
Mental Models 108
Message Mapping and Message Development Templates 111
Health Risk Communication 111
Crisis Communication 114
Checklist for Developing Messages 115
References 115
Additional Resource 116
10 DETERMINE THE APPROPRIATE METHODS 117
Information Materials 117
Visual Representation of Risk 118
Face-to-Face Communication 120
Working with the News Media 121
Stakeholder Participation 122
Technology-Assisted Communication 123
Social Media 125
Checklist for Determining Appropriate Methods 126
Additional Resources 127
11 SET A SCHEDULE 129
Legal Requirements 129
Organizational Requirements 130
The Scientific Process 130
Ongoing Activities 131
Audience Needs 131
Reference 132
Checklist for Setting Schedules 133
12 DEVELOP A COMMUNICATION PLAN 135
What to Include in a Communication Plan 136
Developing Risk Communication Strategies 138
Storyboarding as a Planning Tool 138
Communication Planning Using the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) Approach 139
Using an Audience Focus 140
Strategic Planning for Risk Communication 142
Checklist for Developing a Communication Plan 143
References 143
Additional Resources 143
PART III PUTTING RISK COMMUNICATION INTO ACTION
13 INFORMATION MATERIALS 147
Constructing Information Materials 147
Information to Be Included 147
Organizing Material for Information Materials 150
Language for Information Materials 150
Narrative Style in Information Materials 152
Guidelines for Specifi c Types of Information Materials 153
Newsletters 153
Pamphlets, Booklets, and Fact Sheets 154
Posters, Advertisements, and Displays 154
Articles 155
Technical Reports 156
Checklist for Information Materials 157
References 158
Additional Resources 158
14 VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS OF RISKS 159
Design Visuals for Specifi c Audiences and Uses 160
Match the Visual Portrayal to the Information to be Conveyed 162
Pretest Graphics with Those Who Will Use Them 164
Using Visuals to Personalize Risk Information 166
Comparing Risks in Visual Formats 167
Static versus Interactive Visuals 170
Depicting Probability and Uncertainty 172
Presenting Probability 172
Presenting Uncertainty 176
Probability plus Uncertainty 177
Warning Labels 180
Consider Using Action Levels 183
Ethical Portrayal of Risk Information 183
Using Visual Information in Group Decision Making 187
Checklist for Visual Representation of Risk 188
References 188
Additional Resources 190
15 FACE-TO-FACE COMMUNICATION 193
Constructing Face-to-Face Messages 194
Choose the Appropriate Spokesperson 194
Give the Audience Something to Take Away 197
Reinforce Your Message with Visual Aids 197
Speak in the Language of the Audience 197
Do Not Promise What You Cannot Deliver 197
Guidelines for Specifi c Types of Face-to-Face Communication 198
Speaking Engagements 198
Speakers Bureaus 199
Tours and Demonstrations 200
Video Presentations 201
Audience Interviews 203
Information Fairs 203
Training 204
Checklist for Face-to-Face Communication 205
References 206
Additional Resource 206
16 WORKING WITH THE NEWS MEDIA 207
The Roles of the News Media in Risk Communication 207
News Media Contrasted with Other Stakeholders 209
Productive Interaction, Not Polarization 209
Understanding “Cultural” Differences 210
The News Media Are Event Focused 211
Certain Kinds of Risks Get More Coverage 211
Journalistic Independence and Deadlines Affect Content 211
The Need for Balance Invites Opposing Views 212
Information Is Condensed, Simplified, and Personalized 212
Guidelines for Interacting with the News Media 213
Develop Relationships with Local and Regional News Media Representatives 213
Know When to Approach Media Representatives or When They May Approach You 214
Prepare Messages and Materials Carefully 214
Know Where to Draw the Line 216
Put Your Message in Terms That the Reporter’s Audience Can Understand 216
Put the Risk in Perspective 217
Respect the Reporter’s Deadlines 218
Maintain Ethical Standards of Disclosure 218
Take Action When Inaccurate or Misleading Material Is Published or Aired 219
Evaluate News Media Coverage 219
Using Technology 220
Distribution Services 220
Video and Audio News Releases 221
Public Service Announcements 221
Telebriefings 222
Social Media 223
Checklist for Working with the News Media 223
References 224
Additional Resources 225
17 STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION 227
Requirements for Stakeholder Participation 228
Organizational Requirements for Successful Stakeholder Participation 228
Stakeholder Requirements for Successful Participation 229
Guidelines for Specific Types of Stakeholder Participation Activities 230
The Formal Hearing 231
Group Interactions 232
Interactions Involving Risk Assessment 237
Interactions Involving Decision Making 238
Interactions Involving Risk Management 243
Evaluating Stakeholder Participation Based on Your Situation 245
Checklist for Stakeholder Participation 246
References 248
Additional Resources 249
18 TECHNOLOGY-ASSISTED COMMUNICATION 251
Choosing Technology-Based Applications 252
Workplace Risk Communication 253
Computer-Based Training 253
Informing Employees about Risks 255
Web-Delivered and Stand-Alone Multimedia Programs 257
Online Multimedia Tools 258
Mobile Platforms 259
Web and Satellite Broadcasts 260
Traditional Electronic Forums 262
Interactive Multimedia Programs in Public Places 263
Technology in Care Communication 265
Technology in Consensus Communication 269
Websites 269
Local Area Networks, Extranets, and Bulletin Boards 270
Tracking and Analyzing Comments and Responses 271
Facilitating Group Decision Making 272
Technology in Crisis Communication 273
Websites, Wired, and Wireless Technologies 273
Emergency Planning and Training Tools 274
Checklist for Technology-Assisted Communication 278
References 278
Additional Resources 279
19 SOCIAL MEDIA 281
General Principles on Participating in Social Media to Communicate Risk 282
Determining Audience for Social Media 283
Organizational Barriers to Social Media Adoption 284
Sharing Content via Social Media 287
Engaging with Stakeholders 288
Monitoring Changes in Perception via Social Media 289
Guidelines for Specific Types of Social Media 290
Social Networking Sites 290
Microblogging 292
Blogging and Podcasts 293
Video-, Image-, and File-Sharing Sites 294
Mapping 294
Mobile Phones 295
Evaluating Social Media Effectiveness 295
Checklist for Social Media 296
References 296
Additional Resources 297
PART IV EVALUATING RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORTS
20 EVALUATION OF RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORTS 301
Why Evaluate Risk Communication Efforts? 301
The Meaning of Success 302
Types of Evaluations 304
Conducting the Evaluation 306
Checklist for Evaluating Risk Communication Efforts 308
References 309
Additional Resources 310
PART V SPECIAL CASES IN RISK COMMUNICATION
21 EMERGENCY RISK COMMUNICATION 313
Understanding Emergency Risk Communication 314
Emotions and Public Actions 315
Credibility and Trust 316
Planning for the Unexpected 318
Preparing Your Organization 318
Teaming with Other Organizations 322
Working with Communities in Advance 323
Determining Appropriate Communication Methods 324
Developing an Emergency Risk Communication Plan 328
Communicating during an Emergency 333
Emergency Operation Centers 336
Working with the Media in an Emergency 337
Hotlines 340
Communicating after an Emergency 342
Checklist for Emergency Risk Communication 344
References 345
Additional Resources 348
22 INTERNATIONAL RISK COMMUNICATION 349
Recognize the Similarities 350
Account for Cultural Differences 350
Look for “Your” Risk in Other Countries 352
Plan for Cross-Country Communication 353
Checklist for International Risk Communication 355
References 356
Additional Resources 357
23 PUBLIC HEALTH CAMPAIGNS 359
Understand Your Goals 360
Use Research to Design Campaigns 360
Use Multiple Methods to Reach People 361
News Media 361
Paid Placements and Independent Coverage 362
Online Interventions and Social Media 363
Other Methods 364
Evaluate Success 364
Checklist for Public Health Campaigns 366
References 366
Additional Resources 367
RESOURCES 369
General Risk Communication Resources 369
Environmental Risk Communication Resources 370
Safety Risk Communication Resources 371
Health Risk Communication Resources 371
Care Communication Resources 372
Consensus Communication Resources 372
Crisis Communication Resources 373
GLOSSARY 375
INDEX 379
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