Science and Its Times

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ISBN: 9780787639389 | 0787639389
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 8/1/2000

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"This series discusses how the major fields of science developed during specific time periods. Each volume focuses on a range of years and includes developments in exploration, life sciences, mathematics, physical sciences, and technology. When the series

Preface

Advisory Board

Contributors

xiii

Introduction: 1900-1949

xvii

Chronology: 1900-1949

xxi

Exploration and Discovery

Chronology of Key Events

(1)

Overview

(2)

Topical Essays

The Palace at Knossos: The Archaeological Discovery of Minoan Civilization

(2)

Ancient Writings Shed Light on Past Civilizations

(4)

The Northwest Passage, Sought by Europeans for 400 years, Is Found and Traversed by Ship by Roald Amundsen

(2)

Sven Hedin Maps Tibet

(2)

The Exploration of the Poles

(3)

The First Women Aviators

(2)

The Exploration of South America

(3)

Finding the Tomb of King Tut

(2)

Scaling the Heights: Mountaineering Advances between 1900-1949

(3)

Finding the Pygmies: Westerners Learn More about Africa's Ituri Forest People

(3)

Flights into History and Their Effects on Technology, Politics, and Commerce

(3)

Journey Across China

(3)

Auguste Piccard and Paul Kipfer Are the First to Enter the Stratosphere

(2)

Charles William Beebe and Otis Barton Set Depth Record

(3)

Prehistoric Cave Art Found at Lascaux

(3)

Breaking the Sound Barrier

(3)

Oil Is Discovered in the Middle East

(2)

Biographical Sketches

(31)

Biographical Mentions

(8)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

(3)

Life Sciences

Chronology of Key Events

(1)

Overview

(2)

Topical Essays

The Rediscovery of Mendel's Laws of Heredity

(2)

The Fruit Fly Group Contributes Key Discoveries to Genetics

(3)

Hermann J. Muller and the Induction of Genetic Mutations

(3)

The Genetic Foundation of Natural Selection

102

(2)

The Modern Synthesis of Evolutionary Theory

104

(3)

The Scopes Trial Highlights the Battle over Evolution

107

(3)

The Emergence of Endocrinology as a Medical Science

110

(2)

The Boveri-Sutton Theory Links Chromosomes to Heredity

112

(3)

Elucidating the Structure and Workings of the Nervous System

115

(2)

Developments in Embryology

117

(3)

The Eugenics Movement: Good Intentions Lead to Horrific Consequences

120

(2)

Advances in the Understanding of Energy Metabolism

122

(3)

Advances in Understanding Viruses

125

(4)

Advances in Understanding Brain Behavior in Animals

129

(2)

Behavioral Studies Develop through Animal Observation and Experimentation

131

(3)

Imprinting and Establishment of Ethology

134

(2)

Advances in Botany

136

(3)

Developments in Ecology, 1900-1949

139

(3)

Developments in Anthropology, 1900-1949

142

(3)

The Disastrous Effects of Lysenkoism on Soviet Agriculture

145

(3)

Advances and Trends in the Agricultural Sciences

148

(3)

Key Scientific Research Institutions Are Founded

151

(2)

Biographical Sketches

153

(27)

Biographical Mentions

180

(16)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

196

(3)

Mathematics

Chronology of Key Events

199

(1)

Overview

200

(2)

Topical Essays

The Foundations of Mathematics: Hilbert's Formalism vs. Brouwer's Intuitionism

202

(2)

Bertrand Russell and the Paradoxes of Set Theory

204

(1)

Mathematical Logic: Proofs of Completeness and Incompleteness

205

(2)

David Hilbert Sets an Agenda for Twentieth-Century Mathematics

207

(3)

The Bourbaki School of Mathematics

210

(2)

Lebesgue's Development of the Theories of Measure and Integration

212

(2)

Development of the Fundamental Notions of Functional Analysis

214

(3)

The Decimation of Mathematics in Hitler's Germany

217

(2)

Operations Research

219

(2)

The Development of Computational Mathematics

221

(3)

The Origins of Set-Theoretic Topology

224

(3)

Hermann Minkowski Pioneers the Concept of a Four-Dimensional Space-Time Continuum

227

(2)

Seeking the Geometry of the Universe

229

(1)

The Organization of the Mathematics Community

230

(3)

The Establishment of the Fields Medal in Mathematics

233

(2)

Advances in Game Theory

235

(2)

Advances in the Field of Statistics

237

(3)

Emergence of Women at the Highest Levels of Mathematics

240

(3)

The Emergence of African Americans in Mathematics

243

(1)

Modern Probability As Part of Mathematics

244

(3)

Investigations into the Irrationality and Transcendence of Various Specific Numbers

247

(3)

The Through Axiomatization of Algebra

250

(2)

Advances in Number Theory between 1900 and 1949

252

(2)

New Levels of Abstraction: Homological Algebra and Category Theory

254

(3)

Biographical Sketches

257

(23)

Biographical Mentions

280

(16)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

296

(1)

Medicine

Chronology of Key Events

297

(1)

Overview

298

(2)

Topical Essays

The Development of Schools of Psychology Leads to Greater Understanding of Human Behavior

300

(4)

Advances in Identifying the Causes of Major Infectious Diseases

304

(3)

The Discovery of Vitamins and Their Relationship to Good Health

307

(3)

The Discovery and Importance of Penicillin and the Development of Sulfa Drugs

310

(3)

Salvarsan Provides a Cure for Syphilis and Ushers in the Field of Chemotherapy

313

(3)

The Development of Modern Blood Transfusions

316

(2)

The First Birth Control Clinics in America and England

318

(3)

Advances in Dentistry, 1900-1949

321

(2)

Western Medicine Re-Discovers the Ancient Chinese Herb Ma Huang

323

(2)

New Diagnostic Tests Are Developed

325

(3)

The Development of Antihistamines

328

(2)

Johannes Fibiger Induces Cancer in Lab Animals and Helps Advance Cancer Research, in Particular Leading Directly to the Study of Chemical Carcinogens

330

(3)

Introduction of Electroshock Therapy

333

(2)

Advances in Surgical Techniques

335

(3)

The Treatment of Blue Baby Syndrome

338

(2)

The Development of Modern Hearing Aids

340

(4)

Hormones and the Discovery of Insulin

344

(2)

Therapeutic Innovations Related to Respiration

346

(3)

The Impact of Radioactivity on Medicine between 1900 and 1949

349

(3)

Medical Advances During War

352

(3)

Fluoridation and the Prevention of Tooth Decay

355

(2)

Founding of Major Health Organizations

357

(2)

Aspirin

359

(3)

Biographical Sketches

362

(27)

Biographical Mentions

389

(10)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

399

(2)

Physical Sciences

Chronology of Key Events

401

(1)

Overview

402

(2)

Topical Essay

Mass Migration of Continental European Scientists to the U.S. and Elsewhere

404

(3)

The Manhattan Project and the Decision to Drop the Bomb

407

(6)

National Jewels: The Beginnings of Commercial Research Labs

413

(2)

Einstein's Theories of Relativity

415

(3)

The Development of Quantum Mechanics

418

(2)

From an Expanding Universe to the Big Bang

420

(4)

Life Cycles of the Stars

424

(3)

The Development of Radio Astronomy

427

(3)

``The Coldest Spot on Earth.'' Low Temperature Physics, Superfluidity, and the Discovery of Superconductivity

430

(2)

Models of the Atom

432

(3)

Enrico Fermi Builds the First Nuclear Reactor

435

(2)

Frederick Kipping Develops Silicones

437

(2)

The Advent and Use of Chlorination to Purify Water in Great Britain and the United States

439

(3)

Wolfgang Pauli's Exclusion Principle

442

(3)

Achievements by Indian Physical Scientists

445

(2)

The Development of Artificial Radioactivity

447

(3)

The Use of Poison Gases in the First World War

450

(3)

The Bergen School of Dynamic Meteorology and Its Dissemination

453

(3)

The Great Barringer Meteor Crater

456

(3)

Geologist Richard Oldham's 1906 Paper on Seismic Wave Transmission Establishes the Existence of Earth's Core and Demonstrates the Value of Seismology for Studying the Structure of Earth's Deep Interior

459

(2)

Finding Earth's Age and Other Developments in Geochronology

461

(2)

Alfred Wegener Introduces the Concept of Continental Drift

463

(3)

Radar Mapping of the Solar System

466

(2)

Biographical Sketches

468

(32)

Biographical Mentions

500

(13)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

513

(2)

Technology and Invention

Chronology of Key Events

515

(1)

Overview

516

(2)

Topical Essays

The Development of Airships

518

(3)

Drilling for Offshore Oil

521

(2)

The Invention of the Airplane and the Rise of the Airplane Industry of Military and Civilian Purposes

523

(4)

The Soviet Union Promotes Rapid Technological Development in the Communist Ideology

527

(2)

The Development of Plastics

529

(4)

Model T: The Car for the Masses

533

(2)

Building of the Panama Canal

535

(3)

The Development of RADAR and SONAR

538

(3)

Rocketing into Space: The Beginnings of the Space Age

541

(3)

The Empire State Building: Skyscraper Symbol of America's Power

544

(2)

The Development of Jet Engines

546

(2)

The Invention of Nylon

548

(3)

The Birth of Television

551

(2)

Computers: The Dawn of a Revolution

553

(3)

The Development of Mass Production Has a Dramatic Impact on Industry and Society

556

(2)

Helicopters: The Long Journey

558

(3)

``Mr. Carmody, We Want Lights'': The Tennessee Valley Authority and Rural Electrification Under the New Deal

561

(3)

Household Work Is Transformed by Technological Developments

564

(3)

American Physicists William B. Shockley, Walter H. Brattain, and John Bardeen Produce the First Transistor, Initiating the Semiconductor Revolution

567

(2)

The Technology of War

569

(5)

Hydroelectricity and the ``Big Dam Era''

574

(3)

Birth of the ``Talkies'': The Development of Synchronized Sound for Motion Pictures

577

(3)

Women Inventors between 1900-1949: Setting the Stage for Equal Opportunity

580

(2)

The Development of the Tape Recorder

582

(2)

Biographical Sketches

584

(20)

Biographical Mentions

604

(10)

Bibliography of Primary Sources

614

(3)

General Bibliography

617

(4)

Index

621

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Science and Its Times

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials