Sense and Avoid in UAS Research and Applications

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ISBN: 9780470979754 | 0470979755
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 4/30/2012

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State-of-the-art in research in this challenging yet crucial and topical field, addressing the challenges associated with sense and avoid systems in UASs/ UAVs in their complexity and entirety. Sense and avoid systems are a key technology in the fastest growing field of aircraft development - unmanned aircraft systems. Sense and Avoid in UAS: Research and Applications addresses the challenges associated with sense and avoid systems in UASs/ UAVs in their complexity and entirety. Encompassing the state-of-the-art in research in this challenging yet crucial and topical field, it isauthored by leading practitioners and researchers from three different continents worldwide working on multi-million research programmes such as ASTRAEA. Highly original, it fulfils the current gap in the published literature on sense and avoid covering views and analyses from sensing to guidance to human factors to regulatory issues. The authors assume some basic knowledge of aviation navigation and aerodynamics, but address principles rather than complex mathematics. Addresses the challenges associated with sense and avoid systems in UASs/ UAVs in their complexity and entirety Fulfils the current gap in published literature on sense and avoid Covers views and analyses from sensing to guidance to human factors to regulatory issues Authored by leading researchers as well as industry practitioners worldwide.

Preface	p. xv
About the Editor	p. xix
About the Contributors	p. xxi
Introduction
Introduction	p. 3
UAV versus UAS	p. 3
Historical Perspective on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles	p. 5
UAV Classification	p. 9
UAV Applications	p. 14
UAS Market Overview	p. 17
UAS Future Challenges	p. 20
Fault Tolerance for UAS	p. 26
References	p. 31
Performance Tradeoffs and the Development of Standards	p. 35
Scope of Sense and Avoid	p. 35
System Configurations	p. 36
S&A Services and Sub-functions	p. 38
Sensor Capabilities	p. 39
Airborne Sensing	p. 39
Ground-Based Sensing	p. 41
Sensor Parameters	p. 41
Tracking and Trajectory Prediction	p. 42
Threat Declaration and Resolution Decisions	p. 43
Collision Avoidance	p. 43
Self-separation	p. 45
Human Decision versus Algorithm	p. 45
Sense and Avoid Timeline	p. 46
Safety Assessment	p. 48
Modeling and Simulation	p. 49
Human Factors	p. 50
Standards Process	p. 51
Description	p. 51
Operational and Functional Requirements	p. 52
Architecture	p. 52
Safety, Performance, and Interoperability Assessments	p. 52
Performance Requirements	p. 52
Validation	p. 53
Conclusion	p. 54
References	p. 54
Integration of SAA Capabilities into a UAS Distributed Architecture for Civil Applications	p. 55
Introduction	p. 55
System Overview	p. 57
Distributed System Architecture	p. 58
USAL Concept and Structure	p. 59
Flight and Mission Services	p. 61
Air Segment	p. 61
Ground Segment	p. 65
Awareness Category at USAL Architecture	p. 68
Preflight Operational Procedures: Flight Dispatcher	p. 70
USAL SAA on Airfield Operations	p. 72
Awareness Category during UAS Mission	p. 75
Conclusions	p. 82
Acknowledgments	p. 82
References	p. 82
Regulatory Issues and Human Factors
Regulations and Requirements	p. 87
Background Information	p. 88
Flight Rules	p. 90
Airspace Classes	p. 91
Types of UAS and their Missions	p. 93
Safety Levels	p. 96
Existing Regulations and Standards	p. 97
Current Certification Mechanisms for UAS	p. 99
Standardization Bodies and Safety Agencies	p. 102
Sense and Avoid Requirements	p. 103
General Sense Requirements	p. 103
General Avoidance Requirements	p. 106
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Airspace Class	p. 108
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Flight Altitude and Visibility Conditions	p. 109
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Type of Communications Relay	p. 110
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Automation Level of the UAS	p. 111
Human Factors and Situational Awareness Considerations	p. 112
Conclusions	p. 113
Acknowledgments	p. 114
References	p. 115
Human Factors in UAV	p. 119
Introduction	p. 119
Teleoperation of UAVs	p. 122
Control of Multiple Unmanned Vehicles	p. 123
Task-Switching	p. 124
Multimodal Interaction with Unmanned Vehicles	p. 127
Adaptive Automation	p. 128
Automation and Multitasking	p. 129
Individual Differences	p. 131
Attentional Control and Automation	p. 131
Spatial Ability	p. 134
Sense of Direction	p. 135
Video Games Experience	p. 135
Conclusions	p. 136
References	p. 137
SAA Methodologies
Sense and Avoid Concepts: Vehicle-Based SAA Systems (Vehicle-to-Vehicle)	p. 145
Introduction	p. 145
Conflict Detection and Resolution Principles	p. 146
Sensing	p. 146
Trajectory Prediction	p. 147
Conflict Detection	p. 148
Conflict Resolution	p. 149
Evasion Maneuvers	p. 150
Categorization of Conflict Detection and Resolution Approaches	p. 150
Taxonomy	p. 150
Rule-Based Methods	p. 151
Game Theory Methods	p. 152
Field Methods	p. 153
Geometric Methods	p. 154
Numerical Optimization Approaches	p. 156
Combined Methods	p. 158
Multi-agent Methods	p. 160
Other Methods	p. 163
Acknowledgments	p. 166
References	p. 166
UAS Conflict Detection and Resolution Using Differential Geometry Concepts	p. 175
Introduction	p. 175
Differential Geometry Kinematics	p. 177
Conflict Detection	p. 178
Collision Kinematics	p. 178
Collision Detection	p. 180
Conflict Resolution: Approach I	p. 182
Collision Kinematics	p. 183
Resolution Guidance	p. 186
Analysis and Extension	p. 188
Conflict Resolution: Approach II	p. 191
Resolution Kinematics and Analysis	p. 192
Resolution Guidance	p. 193
CD&R Simulation	p. 195
Simulation Results: Approach I	p. 195
Simulation Results: Approach II	p. 199
Conclusions	p. 200
References	p. 203
Aircraft Separation Management Using Common Information Network SAA	p. 205
Introduction	p. 205
CIN Sense and Avoid Requirements	p. 208
Automated Separation Management on a CIN	p. 212
Elements of Automated Aircraft Separation	p. 212
Grid-Based Separation Automation	p. 214
Genetic-Based Separation Automation	p. 214
Emerging Systems-Based Separation Automation	p. 216
Smart Skies Implementation	p. 217
Smart Skies Background	p. 217
Flight Test Assets	p. 217
Communication Architecture	p. 219
Messaging System	p. 221
Automated Separation Implementation	p. 223
Smart Skies Implementation Summary	p. 223
Example SAA on a ON- Flight Test Results	p. 224
Summary and Future Developments	p. 229
Acknowledgments	p. 231
References	p. 231
SAA Applications
AgentFly: Scalable, High-Fidelity Framework for Simulation, Planning and Collision Avoidance of Multiple UAVs	p. 235
Agent-Based Architecture	p. 236
UAV Agents	p. 237
Environment Simulation Agents	p. 237
Visio Agents	p. 238
Airplane Control Concept	p. 238
Flight Trajectory Planner	p. 241
Collision Avoidance	p. 245
Multi-layer Collision Avoidance Architecture	p. 246
Cooperative Collision Avoidance	p. 247
Non-cooperative Collision Avoidance	p. 250
Team Coordination	p. 252
Scalable Simulation	p. 256
Deployment to Fixed-Wing UAV	p. 260
Acknowledgments	p. 263
References	p. 263
See and Avoid Using Onboard Computer Vision	p. 265
Introduction	p. 265
Background	p. 265
Outline of the SAA Problem	p. 265
State-of-the-Art	p. 266
Visual-EO Airborne Collision Detection	p. 268
Image Capture	p. 268
Camera Model	p. 269
Image Stabilization	p. 269
Image Jitter	p. 269
Jitter Compensation Techniques	p. 270
Detection and Tracking	p. 272
Two-Stage Detection Approach	p. 272
Target Tracking	p. 278
Target Dynamics and Avoidance Control	p. 278
Estimation of Target Bearing	p. 278
Bearing-Based Avoidance Control	p. 279
Hardware Technology and Platform Integration	p. 281
Target/Intruder Platforms	p. 281
Camera Platforms	p. 282
Sensor Pod	p. 286
Real-Time Image Processing	p. 288
Flight Testing	p. 289
Test Phase Results	p. 290
Future Work	p. 290
Conclusions	p. 291
Acknowledgements	p. 291
References	p. 291
The Use of Low-Cost Mobile Radar Systems for Small UAS Sense and Avoid	p. 295
Introduction	p. 295
The UAS Operating Environment	p. 297
Why Use a UAS?	p. 297
Airspace and Radio Carriage	p. 297
See-and-Avoid	p. 297
Midair Collisions	p. 298
Summary	p. 299
Sense and Avoid and Collision Avoidance	p. 300
A Layered Approach to Avoiding Collisions	p. 300
SAA Technologies	p. 300
The UA Operating Volume	p. 303
Situation Awareness	p. 304
Summary	p. 304
Case Study: The Smart Skies Project	p. 305
Introduction	p. 305
Smart Skies Architecture	p. 305
The Mobile Aircraft Tracking System	p. 307
The Airborne Systems Laboratory	p. 310
The Flamingo UAS	p. 311
Automated Dynamic Airspace Controller	p. 311
Summary	p. 312
Case Study: Flight Test Results	p. 312
Radar Characterisation Experiments	p. 312
Sense and Avoid Experiments	p. 319
Automated Sense and Avoid	p. 324
Dynamic Sense and Avoid Experiments	p. 326
Tracking a Variety of Aircraft	p. 326
Weather Monitoring	p. 331
The Future	p. 332
Conclusion	p. 333
Acknowledgements	p. 333
References	p. 334
Epilogue	p. 337
Index	p. 339
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Sense and Avoid in UAS Research and Applications

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