Silicon Photonics The State of the Art

Silicon photonics is currently a very active and progressive area of research, as silicon optical circuits have emerged as the replacement technology for copper-based circuits in communication and broadband networks. The demand for ever improving communications and computing performance continues, and this in turn means that photonic circuits are finding ever increasing application areas. This text provides an important and timely overview of the 'hot topics' in the field, covering the various aspects of the technology that form the research area of silicon photonics.With contributions from some of the world's leading researchers in silicon photonics, this book collates the latest advances in the technology. Silicon Photonics: the State of the Art opens with a highly informative foreword, and continues to feature: the integrated photonic circuit; silicon photonic waveguides; photonic bandgap waveguides; mechanisms for optical modulation in silicon; silicon based light sources; optical detection technologies for silicon photonics; passive silicon photonic devices; photonic and electronic integration approaches; applications in communications and sensors.Silicon Photonics: the State of the Art covers the essential elements of the entire field that is silicon photonics and is therefore an invaluable text for photonics engineers and professionals working in the fields of optical networks, optical communications, and semiconductor electronics. It is also an informative reference for graduate students studying for PhD in fibre optics, integrated optics, optical networking, microelectronics, or telecommunications.

Graham Reed is Professor of Optoelectronics and Head of Department, Engineering, at the University of Surrey in the UK. He graduated in 1983 with a First Class Honours degree in Electronic and Electrical Engineering. Subsequently he obtained a PhD in Integrated Optics in 1987. After a brief period as leader of the Electro-Optics Systems Group at ERA Technology Ltd, he joined the University of Surrey in 1989, where he established the Silicon Photonics group. As such this was one of the pioneering groups in silicon photonics, and has made a significant impact upon the state of the art. The group is currently the leading group in the UK in this field, and Professor Reed is acknowledged as the individual who initiated research on silicon photonic circuits and devices in the UK. The work has been carried out with collaborators from all around the world, both from academic and industrial institutions. Professor Reed has published extensively in the international scientific literature, has contributed presentations to numerous international conferences both as a submitting and an invited speaker, and has served on a variety of international committees.

Foreword	p. xi
About the Editor	p. xvii
List of Contributors	p. xix
Acknowledgements	p. xxiii
Introduction: The Opto-Electronic Integrated Circuit	p. 1
A Few Words About History	p. 2
The Possibilities for OEICs	p. 4
The Present Status of OEICs	p. 6
Silicon-based GeSn and SiGeSn Technology	p. 9
OEICs for the Near, Mid and Far Infrared	p. 9
Opto-Eletronic Integration with Ultimate CMOS and Post CMOS	p. 10
Nanophotonics Integrated with Nanoelectronics	p. 10
Conclusion	p. 12
References	p. 13
Silicon Photonic Waveguides	p. 15
Introduction	p. 15
Planar Waveguides	p. 15
Rib Waveguides	p. 23
Strip Waveguides	p. 28
Coupling to Small Silicon Waveguides	p. 31
Novel Silicon Waveguide Structures	p. 36
Free-standing Waveguides	p. 36
Hollow Waveguides	p. 40
Summary and Conclusions	p. 43
References	p. 44
Silicon-based Photonic Crystal Structures: From Design to Realization	p. 47
Theory of Photonic Crystals and Photonic Bandgap Structures	p. 47
Analogy Between Photonic and Semiconductor Crystals	p. 50
Analyzing Photonic Bandgap Structures	p. 51
Doping of Photonic Crystals	p. 57
Waveguides and Nano-cavities in Photonic Crystals	p. 58
Fabrication and Characterization of Photonic Crystals	p. 60
Planar/2D Photonic Crystal Fabrication	p. 61
3D Photonic Crystal Fabrication	p. 67
Overview of Photonic Bandgap Applications in Silicon Photonic Integrated Circuits	p. 72
Silicon Photonic Crystal Dispersion-based Applications	p. 75
Non-channel Waveguide	p. 75
A Unidirectional Emitter	p. 78
Sub-surface Silicon Optical Bus Based on Three-dimensional Photonic Crystals	p. 80
Dispersion-based Variable Beam Splitter	p. 82
Photonic Crystal Analog-to-digital Converter	p. 84
Conclusions	p. 86
References	p. 86
Optical Modulators in Silicon Photonic Circuits	p. 95
Introduction	p. 95
Mechanisms for Optical Modulation in Silicon	p. 96
Absorption	p. 97
Optical Modulation Mechanisms in Silicon	p. 97
A Brief History of Silicon Modulator Designs	p. 106
Conclusion	p. 141
References	p. 142
Silicon Lasers	p. 147
Introduction	p. 147
Why Bulk Silicon Cannot Amplify Light	p. 147
Physics of Optical Gain in Bulk Silicon	p. 148
Approach 1: Quantum Confinement	p. 153
Approach 2: Erbium Doping and Other Approaches	p. 156
Hybrid Integration of III-V and Silicon	p. 159
Approach 3: Raman Effect	p. 160
Physics of Raman Scattering in Silicon	p. 161
Limitation of Active Carrier Removal Using a p-n Junction	p. 166
Electrical Power Dissipation Caused by Active Carrier Sweep-out	p. 168
Raman Wavelength Conversion	p. 170
Comparison of Raman with Other Optical Nonlinearities in Silicon	p. 172
Experimental Realization of Raman-based Silicon Photonic Devices	p. 172
GeSi Raman Devices	p. 178
Mid-wave IR (MWIR) Silicon Photonics	p. 180
Prospects of Mid-infrared Silicon Raman Devices	p. 181
Energy Harvesting in Silicon Raman and Other Nonlinear Optical Devices	p. 182
Summary	p. 186
References	p. 186
Optical Detection Technologies for Silicon Photonics	p. 191
Introduction	p. 191
Photodetector Theory	p. 192
Band-edge Photo-excitation of Charge Carriers	p. 192
Recombination and Generation via Deep Levels	p. 193
p-n Junction Theory of Semiconductors	p. 195
Photodiodes	p. 200
Photodetector Performance Characteristics	p. 202
Quantum Efficiency	p. 202
Responsivity	p. 203
Response Time	p. 203
Detector Noise	p. 204
Sub-bandgap Detection	p. 205
Hydridization	p. 206
SiGe-based Devices	p. 207
Integration of Ge Detectors with SOI Waveguide Geometries	p. 213
Sub-bandgap Detection via Chemical Doping	p. 217
Defect-enhanced Infrared Response	p. 220
Conclusions	p. 225
References	p. 225
Passive Silicon Photonic Devices	p. 229
The Waveguide Bend	p. 229
The Directional Coupler	p. 233
The Multimode Interference Coupler	p. 237
The Y-junction	p. 242
The Mach-Zehnder Interferometer	p. 245
Bragg Gratings	p. 250
Fabry-Perot Resonators	p. 255
Ring Resonators	p. 259
Conclusion	p. 263
References	p. 264
Integration	p. 269
Motivation for Integration	p. 269
CMOS Integration Approaches	p. 269
Hybrid Integration	p. 269
Monolithic Integration into CMOS	p. 270
Detailed Description of the Front-end Integration Approach	p. 272
Transistor and CMOS Process Selection	p. 272
CMOS Process Selection	p. 274
Passive CMOS Waveguide	p. 275
Active CMOS Waveguide	p. 275
Implants and Activation	p. 277
Edge-coupling vs Surface-coupling and Reliability	p. 277
Germanium Integration	p. 279
State of the Art	p. 285
An Integrated 40 Gbps Wavelength Division Multiplexed Transceiver	p. 285
An Integrated 10 GHz Opto-electronic RF Oscillator	p. 289
Aurora	p. 293
Conclusions	p. 294
References	p. 295
Silicon Photonic Applications	p. 297
Introduction	p. 297
Communications and Interconnects	p. 298
Radio-over-fiber (RoF) RF Applications	p. 304
Nonlinear Optical Effects in Silicon and Applications	p. 307
Silicon Amplifiers and Lasers	p. 308
Wavelength Conversion	p. 312
Sensing	p. 314
Physical Sensors	p. 314
Chemical Sensors	p. 316
Biochemical Sensors	p. 317
Integrated Lab-on-a-chip	p. 319
Summary and Conclusions	p. 320
Acknowledgements	p. 320
References	p. 321
Index	p. 327
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Silicon Photonics The State of the Art

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