Social and Personality Development

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ISBN: 9780534368197 | 0534368190
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 7/30/1999

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David Shaffer's comprehensive and current coverage of social and personality development goes beyond the usual to help students discover the processes that underlie developmental changeùso they come away with a real understanding of causes and intriguing complexities. Students learn why development occurs (the biological and environmental factors that cause children to change and contextual factors such as cross-cultural, familial, neighborhood, school, and peer-group influences). Shaffer explores the approaches that researchers use to test their theories and answer important questions about developing children and adolescents. This book's effective coverage of field research stands out from other texts not only for its accuracy and currency, but because Shaffer consistently juxtaposes classic research with the latest breakthroughs to help you appreciate how our knowledge builds on earlier findings.

Preface
Introduction	p. 1
The Universal Parenting Machine-A Thought Experiment	p. 3
Social-Personality Development in Historical Perspective	p. 6
Childhood in Premodern Times	p. 6
Children as Subjects: The Baby Biographies	p. 7
Emergence of a Psychology of Childhood	p. 8
The Role of Theory in the Scientific Enterprise	p. 8
Questions and Controversies About Human Development	p. 10
Early Philosophical Perspectives on Human Nature	p. 11
Nature Versus Nurture	p. 11
Activity Versus Passivity	p. 12
Continuity Versus Discontinuity	p. 12
Is Development Universal or Particularistic?	p. 13
Research Methods	p. 15
The Scientific Method	p. 15
Gathering Data: Basic Fact-Finding Strategies	p. 15
Detecting Relationships: Correlational and Experimental Designs	p. 21
The Correlational Design	p. 21
The Experimental Design	p. 23
The Natural (or Quasi-) Experiment	p. 25
Designs for Studying Development	p. 26
The Cross-Sectional Design	p. 26
The Longitudinal Design	p. 28
The Sequential Design	p. 29
Cross-Cultural Comparisons	p. 30
Postscript: On Becoming a Wise Consumer of Developmental Research	p. 32
Summary	p. 33
Classical Theories of Social and Personality Development	p. 36
The Psychoanalytic Viewpoint	p. 37
Freud's Psychosexual Theory	p. 37
Contributions and Criticisms of Freud's Theory	p. 40
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development	p. 40
Contributions and Criticisms of Erikson's Theory	p. 41
Psychoanalytic Theory Today	p. 43
The Behaviorist (or Social-Learning) Viewpoint	p. 43
Watson's Behaviorism	p. 43
Skinner's Operant-Learning Theory (Radical Behaviorism)	p. 44
Bandura's Cognitive Social-Learning Theory	p. 44
Social Learning as Reciprocal Determinism	p. 48
Contributions and Criticism of the Social Learning Perspective	p. 49
Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Viewpoint	p. 50
Piaget's View of Intelligence and Intellectual Growth	p. 51
Four Stages of Cognitive Development	p. 52
Contributions and Criticisms of Piaget's Theory	p. 63
Summary	p. 65
Recent Perspectives on Social and Personality Development	p. 67
Ethology: A Modern Evolutionary Perspective	p. 68
Assumptions of Classical Ethology	p. 69
Ethology and Human Development	p. 69
Contributions and Criticisms of Evolutionary Viewpoints	p. 71
Behavioral Genetics: Biological Bases for Individual Differences	p. 73
Methods of Estimating Hereditary Influences	p. 74
Estimating the Contributions of Genes and Environment	p. 75
Hereditary Contributions to Personality and Mental Health	p. 78
Heredity and Environment as Developmental Co-Conspirators	p. 82
Contributions and Criticisms of the Behavioral Genetics Approach	p. 84
Ecological Systems Theory: A Modern Environmentalist Perspective	p. 86
Bronfenbrenner's Contexts for Development	p. 88
Contributions and Criticisms of Ecological Systems Theory	p. 90
Modern Cognitive Perspectives	p. 91
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory	p. 91
Contributions and Criticisms of the Sociocultural Perspective	p. 93
The Social Information-Processing (or Atributional) Viewpoint	p. 94
Contributions and Criticisms of the Social Information-Processing Viewpoint	p. 97
Theories and World Views	p. 98
Summary	p. 102
Early Social and Emotional Development I: Emotional Growth and the Establishment of Intimate Relationships	p. 104
An Overview of Emotional Development	p. 105
Displaying Emotions: The Development and Regulation of Emotional Expressions	p. 105
Recognizing and Interpreting Emotions	p. 110
Emotions and Early Social Development	p. 112
Temperament and Development	p. 112
Hereditary and Environmental Influences on Temperament	p. 113
Stability of Temperament	p. 114
Early Temperamental Profiles and Later Development	p. 115
What Are Emotional Attachments?	p. 116
Early Emotional Bonding	p. 118
Establishment of Interactional Synchrony	p. 119
How Do Infants Become Attached?	p. 121
The Growth of Primary Attachments	p. 121
Theories of Attachment	p. 122
Two Attachment-Related Fears of Infancy	p. 126
Stranger Anxiety	p. 127
Separation Anxiety	p. 127
Why Do Infants Fear Strangers and Separations?	p. 127
Reactions to the Loss of an Attachment Object	p. 131
Summary	p. 133
Early Social and Emotional Development II: Individual Differences and Their Implications for Future Development	p. 135
Individual Differences in Attachment Quality	p. 136
Assessing Attachment Security	p. 136
Cultural Variations in Attachment	p. 139
Factors That Influence Attachment Security	p. 139
Quality of Caregiving	p. 140
Infant Characteristics	p. 142
Fathers as Attachment Objects	p. 145
Fathers as Caregivers	p. 145
Fathers' Influence on Early Intellectual Development	p. 146
Fathers as Contributors to Early Social and Emotional Development	p. 146
Attachment and Later Development	p. 147
Long-Term Correlates of Secure and Insecure Attachments	p. 147
Why Might Attachment Quality Forecast Later Outcomes?	p. 148
Is Attachment History Destiny?	p. 150
The Unattached Infant	p. 151
Effects of Social Isolation in Dogs	p. 151
Harlow's Studies of Socially Deprived Monkeys	p. 152
Social Deprivation in Humans	p. 153
Maternal Employment, Day Care, and Early Emotional Development	p. 157
Benefits of High-Quality Alternative Care	p. 158
The Importance of High-Quality Parenting	p. 159
How Might We Assist Working Parents?	p. 159
Summary	p. 161
Development of the Self and Social Cognition	p. 163
Development of the Self-Concept	p. 165
The Emerging Self: Differentiation, Discrimination, and Self-Recognition	p. 165
Who Am I?: Responses of Preschool Children	p. 168
Children's Theory of Mind and Emergence of the Private Self	p. 169
Conceptions of Self in Middle Childhood and Adolescence	p. 171
Self-Esteem: The Evaluative Component of Self	p. 172
Origins and Development of Self-Esteem	p. 173
Social Contributors to Self-Esteem	p. 177
The Development of Self-Control	p. 178
Emergence of Self-Control in Early Childhood	p. 179
Delay of Gratification in Childhood and Adolescence	p. 181
Who Am I to Be?: Forging an Identity	p. 183
Developmental Trends in Identity Formation	p. 184
How Painful Is Identity Formation?	p. 185
Personal and Social Influences on Identity Formation	p. 186
The Other Side of Social Cognition: Knowing About Others	p. 188
Age Trends in Person Perception	p. 189
Theories of Social-Cognitive Development	p. 191
Summary	p. 196
Achievement	p. 199
The Concept of Achievement Motivation	p. 200
The Motivational View of Achievement	p. 201
A Behavioral View of Achievement	p. 201
Early Reactions to One's Accomplishments: From Mastery to Self-Evaluation	p. 202
Theories of Achievement Motivation and Achievement Behavior	p. 203
Need Achievement Theories	p. 204
Weiner's Attribution Theory	p. 207
Dweck's Learned Helplessness Theory	p. 211
Reflections on Theories of Achievement	p. 213
Cultural and Subcultural Influences on Achievement	p. 215
Individualistic Versus Collectivistic Perspectives on Achievement	p. 215
Ethnic Variations in Achievement	p. 216
Social Class Differences in Achievement	p. 218
Home and Family Influences on Achievement	p. 222
Quality of Attachments on Achievement	p. 222
The Home Environment	p. 222
Child-Rearing and Achievement	p. 224
Configural Influences: Birth Order, Family Size, and Children's Achievement Behavior	p. 225
On Sex Differences in Achievement and a Look Ahead	p. 227
Summary	p. 228
Sex Differences, Gender-Role Development, and Sexuality	p. 230
Categorizing Males and Females: Gender-Role Standards	p. 232
Some Facts and Fictions About Sex Differences	p. 234
Actual Psychological Differences between the Sexes	p. 234
Cultural Myths	p. 236
Do Cultural Myths Contribute to Sex Differences in Ability (and Vocational Opportunity)?	p. 238
Developmental Trends in Gender Typing	p. 239
Development of the Gender Concept	p. 240
Development of Gender-Role Stereotypes	p. 240
Development of Gender-Typed Behavior	p. 242
Subcultural Variations in Gender Typing	p. 244
Theories of Gender Typing and Gender-Role Development	p. 245
Money and Ehrhardt's Biosocial Theory	p. 246
Evidence for Social-Labeling Influences	p. 249
Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory	p. 252
Social Learning Theory	p. 253
Kohlberg's Cognitive-Developmental Theory	p. 255
Gender Schema Theory	p. 256
An Integrative Theory	p. 257
Psychological Androgyny: A Prescription for the Future?	p. 259
Do Androgynous People Really Exist?	p. 259
Are There Advantages to Being Androgynous?	p. 260
Applications: On Changing Gender-Role Attitudes and Behavior	p. 260
Sexuality and Sexual Behavior	p. 263
Cultural Influences on Sexuality	p. 263
Adolescent Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors	p. 263
Personal and Social Consequences of Adolescent Sexual Activity	p. 266
Summary	p. 269
Aggression and Antisocial Conduct	p. 271
What Is Aggression?	p. 272
Aggression as an Instinct	p. 272
Behavioral Definitions of Aggression	p. 273
Aggression as a Social Judgment	p. 274
Theories of Aggression	p. 274
Instinct Theories	p. 274
Learning Theories	p. 277
Dodge's Social Information-Processing Theory	p. 281
Developmental Trends in Aggression	p. 284
Early Conflict and the Origins of Aggression	p. 284
Age-Related Changes in the Nature of Aggression	p. 284
Is Aggression a Stable Attribute?	p. 288
Sex Differences in Aggression	p. 289
The Biological Viewpoint	p. 289
The Social-Learning Viewpoint	p. 290
The Interactive Viewpoint	p. 291
Cultural and Subcultural Influences on Aggression	p. 291
Family Influences on Aggression	p. 294
Parental Child-Rearing Practices and Children's Aggression	p. 294
Family Climate and Children's Aggression	p. 296
Methods of Controlling Aggression and Antisocial Conduct	p. 300
Catharsis: A Dubious Strategy	p. 300
Creating "Nonaggressive" Environments	p. 301
Eliminating the Payoffs for Aggression	p. 301
Social-Cognitive Interventions	p. 302
Summary	p. 303
Altruism and Moral Development	p. 305
What Are Altruism and Prosocial Behavior?	p. 306
The Motivational (or Intentional) Definition of Altruism	p. 307
A Behavioral Definition of Altruism	p. 307
Theories of Altruism and Prosocial Development	p. 308
Biological Theories: Are We Programmed for Prosocial Conduct?	p. 308
Psychoanalytic Theory: Let Your Conscience (Superego) Be Your Guide	p. 309
Social-Learning Theory: What's in It for Me?	p. 309
Cognitive Theories of Altruism: Maturity Is the Medium	p. 311
Developmental Trends in Altruism	p. 313
Origins of Prosocial Behavior	p. 313
Age-Related Changes in Altruism	p. 314
Cognitive and Affective Contributors to Altruism	p. 315
Role-Taking and Altruism	p. 316
Prosocial Moral Reasoning	p. 316
Empathy: An Important Affective Contributor to Altruism	p. 317
Viewing Oneself as Altruistic	p. 319
Cultural and Social Influences on Altruism	p. 320
Cultural Influences	p. 320
Reinforcing Altruism	p. 321
Modeling Influences: Practicing and Preaching Altruism	p. 322
Who Raises Altruistic Children?	p. 324
What Is Morality?	p. 326
How Developmentalists Look at Morality	p. 326
Psychoanalytic Explanations of Moral Development	p. 327
Freud's Theory of Oedipal Morality	p. 327
Evaluating Freud's Theory and Newer Psychoanalytic Ideas About Morality	p. 328
Cognitive-Developmental Theory: The Child as a Moral Philosopher	p. 328
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development	p. 329
An Evaluation of Piaget's Theory	p. 331
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development	p. 333
Support for Kohlberg's Theory	p. 336
Criticisms of Kohlberg's Approach	p. 339
Morality as a Product of Social Learning (and Social Information Processing)	p. 344
How Consistent Are Moral Conduct and Moral Character?	p. 344
Learning to Resist Temptation	p. 345
Who Raises Children Who Are Morally Mature?	p. 348
Summary	p. 352
The Family	p. 355
Functions of the Family	p. 356
The Family as a Social System	p. 358
Direct and Indirect Influences	p. 359
Families Are Developing Systems	p. 360
Families Are Embedded Systems	p. 361
A Changing Family System in a Changing World	p. 361
Parental Socialization During Childhood and Adolescence	p. 363
Two Major Dimensions of Parenting	p. 363
Four Patterns of Parenting	p. 364
Social Class and Ethnic Variations in Child-Rearing	p. 367
The Quest for Autonomy: Renegotiating the Parent/Child Relationship During Adolescence	p. 371
The Influence of Siblings and Sibling Relationships	p. 373
Changes in the Family System When a New Baby Arrives	p. 373
Sibling Relationships over the Course of Childhood	p. 375
Positive Contributions of Sibling Relationships	p. 377
Characteristics of Only Children	p. 378
Diversity in Family Life	p. 379
Adoptive Families	p. 379
Gay and Lesbian Families	p. 380
The Impacts of Family Conflict and Divorce	p. 380
Remarriage and Blended Families	p. 385
Maternal Employment Revisited	p. 387
When Parenting Breaks Down: The Problem of Child Abuse	p. 390
Who Are the Abusers?	p. 391
Who Is Abused?	p. 391
Social-Situational Triggers: The Ecology of Child Abuse	p. 392
Consequences of Abuse and Neglect	p. 393
How Can We Solve the Problem?	p. 394
Reflections on the Family	p. 397
Summary	p. 398
Extrafamilial Influences I: Television, Computers, and Schooling	p. 400
The Early Window: Effects of Television on Children and Adolescents	p. 401
Television and Children's Lifestyles	p. 401
Development of Television Literacy	p. 402
Effects of Televised Violence	p. 403
Other Potentially Undesirable Effects of Television	p. 408
Television As an Educational Tool	p. 410
Should Television Be Used to Socialize Children?	p. 412
Child Development in the Computer Age	p. 413
Computers in the Classroom	p. 413
Concerns About Computers	p. 415
The School as a Socialization Agent	p. 416
Does Schooling Promote Cognitive Development?	p. 416
Determinants of Effective (and Ineffective) Schooling	p. 417
The Teacher's Influence	p. 422
Do Our Schools Meet the Needs of All Our Children?	p. 427
How Well-Educated Are Our Children? Cross-Cultural Comparisons	p. 431
Summary	p. 433
Extrafamilial Influences II: Peers As Socialization Agents	p. 435
Who Is a Peer and What Functions Do Peers Serve?	p. 437
The Significance of Peer Interaction	p. 437
Frequency of Peer Contacts	p. 438
Peers as Promoters of Positive Developmental Outcomes	p. 439
The Development of Peer Sociability	p. 440
Peer Sociability in Infancy and Toddlerhood	p. 441
Sociability During the Preschool Period	p. 442
Peer Sociability in Middle Childhood and Adolescence	p. 444
Personal and Social Influences on Sociability	p. 448
Peer Acceptance and Popularity	p. 452
Measuring Children's Popularity with Peers	p. 453
Why Are Children Accepted, Neglected, or Rejected By Peers?	p. 454
On Improving the Social Skills of Rejected Children	p. 459
Children and Their Friends	p. 461
On the Development of Friendship	p. 461
Social Interactions Among Friends and Acquaintances	p. 462
Are There Distinct Advantages to Having Friends?	p. 463
How Do Peers Exert Their Influence?	p. 466
Peer Reinforcement and Modeling Influences	p. 466
Peers as Critics and Agents of Persuasion	p. 466
The Normative Function of Peer Groups	p. 467
Peer Versus Adult Influences and the Question of Cross-Pressures	p. 468
Summary	p. 470
Epilogue	p. 472
Major Themes in Human Social and Personality Development	p. 473
Human Development Is an Holistic Enterprise	p. 473
We Are Active Contributors to Our Own Development	p. 473
There Is Both Continuity and Discontinuity in Development	p. 474
There Is Much Plasticity in Human Development	p. 475
The Nature-Nurture Distinction Is a False Dichotomy	p. 475
Both Normative and Idiosyncratic Developments Are Important	p. 476
We Develop in a Cultural and Historical Context	p. 477
Development Is Best Viewed from Multiple Perspectives	p. 477
Patterns of Parenting (and Adult Guidance) Clearly Matter	p. 478
Many Social Forces Conspire to Shape Development	p. 480
We've Come a Long Way, Baby ... but Have So Far to Go	p. 481
References	p. 492
Glossary	p. 483
Name Index	p. 533
Subject Index	p. 551
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Social and Personality Development

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