Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes

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ISBN: 9781566704441 | 1566704448
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Copyright: 12/28/2004

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The development of stabilization and solidification techniques in the field of waste treatment reflects the efforts to better protect human health and the environment with modern advances in materials and technology. Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes provides comprehensive information including case studies, selection criteria, and regulatory considerations on waste characterization, contaminant transport and leachability, testing methods for stabilized waste forms, and the interactions between contaminants and stabilizing components.The book describes various systems based on cement technology that are used for stabilization and solidification of wastes. It demonstrates how to design a stabilized waste form, including the use of statistical techniques for generating response surface models for large, complicated applications. It provides guidelines for the selection of bonding materials, such as hydraulic cements, polymers, and hydroceramics, and discusses several additives and sorbents used to enhance immobilization, binder properties, and contaminant stabilization. The book portrays the transport mechanisms of contaminants in treated wastes and how to predict the transport of contaminants with various mathematical models. Following a discussion of waste types, principles, and properties of cemented waste forms, such as microstructure and durability, it outlines the test methods used to evaluate them.Fusing research, technology, and general practice principles taken from the firsthand experience of scientists, engineers, regulators, and teachers, Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes can be used in advanced environmental engineering courses and as a reference for stabilization and solidification engineers, technology vendors and buyers, laboratory technicians, scientists, environmentalists, policymakers, and managers in treatment storage and disposal facilities.

Chapter 1 Introduction

(6)

Roger Spence and Caijun Shi

1.1 Definition of Stabilization and Solidification

(1)

1.2 A Brief Summary of the Origin of S/S Technology

(1)

1.3 Post-RCRA Development of S/S Technology and Organization of the Book

(2)

References

(2)

Chapter 2 General Guidelines for S/S of Wastes

(18)

Caijun Shi and Roger Spence

2.1 Regulatory Basis for Use of S/S

(3)

2.2 Scientific Basis of S/S

(1)

2.3 Selection of S/S Technology

(4)

2.4 Design of S/S Formulations

(5)

2.4.1 Compatibility Between Cement and Waste Materials

(1)

2.4.2 Chemical Fixation of Contaminants

(1)

2.4.3 Physical Encapsulation of Contaminated Waste and Soils

(1)

2.4.4 Leachability of Contaminants from the Treated Waste or Contaminated Materials

(1)

2.4.5 Durability of the Treated Waste or Contaminated Materials

(2)

2.4.6 Cost-Effectiveness

(1)

2.5 Evaluation of S/S Formulations

(1)

2.6 Summary

(1)

References

(4)

Chapter 3 Classification and Characterization of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes

(24)

Xiaosheng S. Qin and Guo H. Huang

3.1 Background and Overview

(1)

3.2 Classification and Characterization of Hazardous Wastes

(12)

3.2.1 Hazardous Waste Classification

(4)

3.2.1.1 Hazard Codes

(1)

3.2.1.2 Listed Wastes

(3)

3.2.1.3 Characteristic Wastes

(1)

3.2.2 Hazardous Waste Characteristics

(2)

3.2.3 Identification Process of a Hazardous Waste

(6)

3.2.3.1 Question Determination Process

(5)

3.2.3.2 Special Regulatory Conventions for Hazardous Waste

(1)

3.2.4 Special Wastes

(1)

3.3 Classification and Characterization of Radioactive Wastes

(5)

3.3.1 Radioactive Waste Classification

(4)

3.3.1.1 Background

(1)

3.3.1.2 Radioactive Waste Classification

(2)

3.3.1.3 LLW Waste Subclassification

(2)

3.3.2 Radioactive Waste Characterization

(1)

3.4 Classification and Characterization of Mixed Wastes

(4)

3.4.1 Mixed Waste Classification

(2)

3.4.1.1 DOE Mixed Waste

(1)

3.4.1.2 Non-DOE Mixed Waste

(1)

3.4.2 Mixed Waste Characterization

(1)

References

(1)

Chapter 4 Hydraulic Cement Systems for Stabilization/Solidification

(30)

Caijun Shi

4.1 Introduction

(1)

4.2 Portland Cement-Based Materials

(12)

4.2.1 Portland Cement

(4)

4.2.1.1 Characterization and Hydration Chemistry

(2)

4.2.1.2 S/S with Portland Cement

(2)

4.2.2 Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement

(1)

4.2.3 Portland Pozzolan Cement

(4)

4.2.3.1 Introduction

(1)

4.2.3.2 Hydration and Microstructure of Portland Pozzolan Cements

(1)

4.2.3.3 Portland Natural Pozzolan Cements

(1)

4.2.3.4 Portland Fly Ash Cement

(2)

4.2.3.5 Portland Silica Fume Cement

(1)

4.2.4 Portland Cement-Sodium Silicate System

(1)

4.2.5 Polymer-Modified Portland Cement

(1)

4.2.6 Masonry Cement

(1)

4.3 Lime-Pozzolan Cement

(2)

4.4 High-Alumina Cements

(2)

4.5 Alkali-Activated Slag Cements

(3)

4.6 Cement Kiln Dusts

(1)

4.7 Fly Ashes

(1)

References

(9)

Chapter 5 Organic Polymers for Stabilization/Solidification

(18)

Paul D. Kalb

5.1 Introduction

(2)

5.2 Thermosets

(5)

5.2.1 Urea-Formaldehyde

(1)

5.2.2 Polybutadiene

(1)

5.2.3 Polyester Resins

(1)

5.2.4 Summary for Thermosets

(2)

5.3 Thermoplastics

(9)

5.3.1 Bitumen

(4)

5.3.2 Polyethylene

(5)

References

(2)

Chapter 6 Other Binders

(54)

Robert C. Moore, Arun Wagh, Paul D. Kalb, Gerald W. Veazey, Earl W. McDaniel, and Darryl D. Siemer

6.1 Phosphate Stabilization and Immobilization of Heavy Metal and Radionuclide Contaminants

(9)

References

107

(5)

6.2 Ceramicrete: An Alternative Radioactive Waste Form

112

(8)

6.2.1 Introduction

112

(1)

6.2.2 The Ceramicrete Process and Its Chemistry

113

(1)

6.2.3 Mechanisms of Immobilization

113

(2)

6.2.4 S/S of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes with Ceramicrete

115

(3)

6.2.4.1 Stabilization of Hazardous Contaminants

115

(2)

6.2.4.2 Stabilization of Fission Products

117

(1)

6.2.4.3 Stabilization of Radioactive Elements

118

(1)

6.2.4.4 Salt Stabilization

118

(1)

6.2.5 Evaluation of Radiolytic Gas Generation

118

(1)

6.2.6 Summary

119

(1)

References

120

(1)

6.3 Sulfur Polymer Cement (SPC)

121

(7)

References

128

(2)

6.4 Envirostone Gypsum Cement in Radioactive Waste Stabilization

130

(5)

6.4.1 Introduction

130

(1)

6.4.2 Use of Envirostone at Los Alamos National Laboratory

131

(2)

6.4.2.1 Free-Liquid Generation from Envirostone

132

(1)

6.4.2.2 Leaching Performance of Envirostone

133

(1)

6.4.3 Experience with Envirostone at Rocky Flats

133

(1)

6.4.4 Additional Instances of Envirostone Use

134

(1)

6.4.5 Conclusion

135

(1)

References

135

(2)

6.5 Hydroceramic Concretes

137

(11)

6.5.1 Introduction

137

(1)

6.5.2 Hydroceramics versus Geopolymers

138

(1)

6.5.3 Manufacture of Hydroceramic Concrete

138

(4)

6.5.3.1 Materials

138

(3)

6.5.3.2 Mixing

141

(1)

6.5.3.3 Curing

141

(1)

6.5.3.4 Waste Pretreatment

142

(1)

6.5.4 Leach Behavior

142

(6)

6.5.4.1 Intrinsic Solubility

142

(1)

6.5.4.2 Standard Leach Protocols

143

(5)

6.5.5 Application

148

(1)

References

148

(3)

Chapter 7 Interactions between Wastes and Binders

151

(26)

Julia A. Stegemann

7.1 Introduction

151

(1)

7.2 Interferences with Binder Hydration

152

(11)

7.2.1 Introduction

152

(2)

7.2.2 Effects of Inorganic Compounds on Cement Hydration

154

(7)

7.2.3 Effects of Organic Compounds on Cement Hydration

161

(1)

7.2.4 Other Effects

162

(1)

7.2.5 Effects of Wastes

163

(1)

7.3 Contaminant Immobilization

163

(6)

7.3.1 Introduction

163

(1)

7.3.2 Physical Encapsulation

164

(1)

7.3.3 Precipitation

165

(2)

7.3.4 Uptake by Cement Hydration Products

167

(2)

7.4 Summary

169

(1)

Acknowledgments

170

(1)

References

170

(7)

Chapter 8 Stabilization/Solidification Additives

177

(22)

Steve Hoeffner, Jesse Conner, and Roger Spence

8.1 Introduction

178

(1)

8.2 Metal Stabilization

178

(10)

8.2.1 Ph Control and Buffering

178

(1)

8.2.2 Speciation/Precipitation/Re-Speciation

179

(3)

8.2.2.1 Sulfides, Sulfur, and Organo-Sulfur Compounds

179

(1)

8.2.2.2 Soluble Silicates and Rice Hull Ash

180

(1)

8.2.2.3 Carbonates

181

(1)

8.2.2.4 Phosphates and Trisodium Phosphate

181

(1)

8.2.2.5 FeSO4 Co-Precipitation

181

(1)

8.2.2.6 Other Inorganic Complexing Agents

181

(1)

8.2.3 Oxidation/Reduction

182

(2)

8.2.4 Sorption and Ion Exchange

184

(6)

8.2.4.1 Illite Clay

185

(1)

8.2.4.2 Crystalline Silicotitanate

185

(1)

8.2.4.3 Clinoptilolite and Other Zeolites

185

(1)

8.2.4.4 Vermiculite and Other Sorbents

186

(2)

8.3 Non-Metals and Organics

188

(1)

8.4 Organic Stabilization

188

(1)

8.5 Additives and Treatment Methods for OrganoMetallic and Complexed Compounds

189

(1)

8.6 Processing and Anti-Inhibition Aids

190

(3)

8.6.1 Control Agents

191

(1)

8.6.2 Retarders

191

(1)

8.6.3 Water-Reducing Agents

191

(1)

8.6.4 Viscosity Control Agents

192

(1)

8.6.5 Additives that Increase Strength or Improve Other Physical Properties

192

(1)

8.7 Multitalented or Multipurpose Reagents

193

(1)

References

194

(5)

Chapter 9 Microstructure and Microchemistry of Waste Forms

199

(30)

Amitava Roy and Frank Cartledge

9.1 Introduction

199

(1)

9.2 Microstructural Characteristics of Cement Pastes and Cement-Based Waste Forms

200

(1)

9.3 Analytical Techniques

201

(1)

9.4 Microscopic Characterization of S/S Waste Forms

202

(4)

9.5 Microchemistry

206

(12)

9.5.1 X-Ray Analysis

207

(1)

9.5.2 Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy

207

(2)

9.5.3 X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure (XAFS) Spectroscopy

209

(3)

9.5.4 Thermal Analysis

212

(2)

9.5.5 XRD

214

(2)

9.5.6 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy

216

(2)

9.6 Examples of Solidification/Stabilization

218

(4)

9.6.1 Behavior of Chromium in a Simulated Waste Form

218

(1)

9.6.2 Structural Characterization of a Solidified Synthetic Waste Form

219

(1)

9.6.3 Structural Characterization of Field Cement-Solidified Contaminated Soil

220

(2)

9.7 Concluding Remarks

222

(1)

Acknowledgment

223

(1)

Glossary of Terms

224

(1)

References

224

(5)

Chapter 10 Leaching Processes and Evaluation Tests for Inorganic Constituent Release from Cement-Based Matrices

229

(52)

Andrew C. Garrabrants and David S. Kosson

10.1 Introduction

230

(1)

10.2 Leaching Mechanisms

231

(2)

10.2.1 Geochemical Control

231

(1)

10.2.2 Sorption and Desorption

232

(1)

10.2.3 Mass-Transport Control

232

(1)

10.2.3.1 Diffusion Within Pores

232

(1)

10.2.3.2 Advection

232

(1)

10.2.3.3 Dispersion

232

(1)

10.2.3.4 Crack Flow

233

(1)

10.3 Factors Influencing Contaminant Release

233

(10)

10.3.1 S/S Matrix Properties

234

(2)

10.3.1.1 Hydration Products

234

(1)

10.3.1.2 Hydraulic Conductivity

235

(1)

10.3.1.3 Acid Neutralization Capacity

236

(1)

10.3.2 Release Conditions

236

(5)

10.3.2.1 Flow Regime

237

(1)

10.3.2.2 Infiltration Rate

237

(1)

10.3.2.3 Groundwater Composition

238

(2)

10.3.2.4 Particle Size of the Disposed Fill

240

(1)

10.3.2.5 Temperature

240

(1)

10.3.3 Material Aging

241

(2)

10.3.3.1 Internal Stresses

241

(1)

10.3.3.2 External Stresses

242

(1)

10.4 Overview of Leaching Tests

243

(18)

10.4.1 Leaching Test Applications

244

(1)

10.4.2 Leaching Test Classification by Application

245

(3)

10.4.2.1 Screening Tests

245

(1)

10.4.2.2 Field Mimicking or Simulation Tests

246

(1)

10.4.2.3 Intrinsic Property Tests

247

(1)

10.4.3 Leaching Tests by Procedural Groups

248

(10)

10.4.3.1 Equilibrium Tests

248

(7)

10.4.3.2 Mass-Transport Rate Tests

255

(3)

10.4.4 Variables Affecting Leaching Test Results

258

(3)

10.4.4.1 Leachant Composition

259

(1)

10.4.4.2 pH Control

259

(1)

10.4.4.3 Particle-Size/Contact Time

259

(1)

10.4.4.4 Liquid-to-Solid Ratio

260

(1)

10.4.4.5 Open/Closed Systems

261

(1)

10.5 Leaching Data Presentation and Interpretation

261

(5)

10.5.1 Equilibrium-Based Tests

261

(1)

10.5.2 Mass-Transport Tests

262

(4)

10.5.2.1 Diffusivity in Reactive Media

263

(1)

10.5.2.2 Regression of Diffusivity from Leaching Data

264

(1)

10.5.2.3 Changes in Mass-Transport Behavior

265

(1)

10.6 Leaching Test Selection

266

(2)

10.6.1 Leachate-Controlled Monofill Example

266

(1)

10.6.2 Uncontrolled Near-Surface Placement

267

(1)

References

268

(13)

Chapter 11 Testing and Performance Criteria for Stabilized/Solidified Waste Forms

281

(38)

A.S. Ramesh Perera, Abir Al-Tabbaa, J. Murray Reid, Julia A. Stegemann and Caijun Shi

11.1 Introduction

282

(1)

11.2 Leaching Tests

283

(5)

11.2.1 Introduction

283

(1)

11.2.2 Extraction Tests

284

(2)

11.2.2.1 Agitated Extraction Tests

284

(2)

11.2.2.2 Sequential Chemical Extraction Tests

286

(1)

11.2.3 Dynamic Tests

286

(2)

11.2.3.1 Serial Batch Tests

287

(1)

11.2.3.2 Flow-Around Tests

288

(1)

11.2.3.3 Flow-Through Tests

288

(1)

11.3 Primary Physical Tests

288

(2)

11.3.1 Introduction

288

(1)

11.3.2 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)

288

(1)

11.3.3 Hydraulic Conductivity

289

(1)

11.3.4 Weathering Resistance

290

(1)

11.4 Other Characterization and Evaluation Tests

290

(1)

11.4.1 Initial Consumption of Lime (ICL)

290

(1)

11.4.2 Pulverization

290

(1)

11.4.3 Particle Size Distribution

291

(1)

11.4.4 Bulk Density

291

(1)

11.4.5 Specific Gravity

291

(1)

11.4.6 Water Absorption

291

(1)

11.4.7 Porosity

291

(1)

11.4.8 Moisture Content

291

(1)

11.4.9 Moisture Condition Value (MCV)

292

(1)

11.4.10 Dry Density/Moisture Content Relation

292

(1)

11.4.11 Slump

292

(1)

11.4.12 Flow

292

(1)

11.4.13 Setting Times

292

(1)

11.4.14 Heat of Hydration

292

(1)

11.4.15 Bound Water

293

(1)

11.4.16 Shrinkage/Expansion

293

(1)

11.4.17 Penetration Resistance

293

(1)

11.4.18 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

293

(1)

11.4.19 Tensile Strength

293

(1)

11.4.20 Modulus of Elasticity

293

(1)

11.4.21 Biodegradability

294

(1)

11.4.22 Microstructural Examination

294

(1)

11.5 Performance Criteria

294

(9)

11.5.1 General

294

(3)

11.5.2 Contaminant Leachability

297

(4)

11.5.3 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)

301

(1)

11.5.4 Hydraulic Conductivity

302

(1)

11.5.5 Other Durability Tests

302

(1)

11.6 Integrated Evaluation Protocols

303

(4)

11.6.1 Introduction

303

(1)

11.6.2 Integrated Evaluation Framework

303

(2)

Tier 1: Screening Tests

304

(1)

Tier 2A: Solubility and Release as a Function of pH

304

(1)

Tier 2B: Solubility and Release as a Function of L/S Ratio (RU-SR003.1)

305

(1)

Tier 3: Mass Transfer Rate

305

(1)

11.6.3 WTC Evaluation Protocoll5

305

(4)

11.6.3.1 Evaluation Framework

305

(1)

11.6.3.2 Evaluation Approach

306

(1)

11.7 Summary

307

(1)

Acknowledgments

308

(1)

References

309

(10)

Chapter 12 Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QAIQC) for Waste Stabilization/Solidification

319

(16)

Caijun Shi

12.1 Introduction

320

(1)

12.2 General Principles Of QA/QC

320

(15)

12.2.1 Quality Assurance

320

(1)

12.2.2 Quality Control

321

(1)

12.2.3 Quality Control Plan

321

(1)

12.3 Frequency and Statistic Evaluation of QA/QC Testing

322

(2)

12.4 Quality Control Chart

324

(2)

12.5 Waste Sampling

326

(1)

12.6 Treatability Studies

326

(1)

12.7 QA/QC for Field S/S Operations

327

(1)

12.7.1 QA/QC Plan for Field S/S Operation

327

(1)

12.7.2 Pre-Treatment Testing

328

(1)

12.7.2.1 Cements and Additives

328

(1)

12.7.2.2 Wastes

328

(1)

12.7.2.3 Mixing Water

329

(1)

12.7.3 Mixing and Placement

329

(1)

12.7.4 Sampling and Testing Freshly Mixed Waste

329

(8)

12.7.4.1 Sampling Freshly Treated Wastes

329

(1)

12.7.4.2 Content of Cement or Additives

329

(1)

12.7.4.3 Volume Increase

330

(1)

12.7.4.4 Bulk Density and Moisture Content

330

(1)

12.7.4.5 Consistency

330

(1)

12.7.4.6 Concentration of Contaminants

330

(1)

12.8 Testing Hardened Treated Waste Forms

330

(1)

12.9 Quality Control Chart for S/S

331

(1)

12.10 Early Failure Indicators and Adjustments to the Mix Design

331

(1)

12.11 Summary

332

(1)

References

332

(3)

Chapter 13 Case Studies: Full-Scale Operations and Delivery Systems

335

(30)

Jesse Conner, Steve Hoeffner, and Christine Langton

13.1 Introduction

336

(1)

13.2 Chemical Scale-Up

336

(1)

13.3 Delivery Systems

337

(8)

13.3.1 Mobile or Portable Systems

338

(5)

13.3.1.1 Ex Situ Methods

338

(2)

13.3.1.2 In Situ Methods

340

(3)

13.3.2 Fixed Installations

343

(2)

13.4 Case Studies

345

(18)

13.4.1 Case Study #1: Lead-Contaminated Soil at a Former Battery Processing Site³

346

(2)

13.4.1.1 Background and Purpose

346

(1)

13.4.1.2 Treatability Studies

346

(1)

13.4.1.3 Delivery System

347

(1)

13.4.1.4 Operations

347

(1)

13.4.1.5 QC and Results

348

(1)

13.4.2 Case Study #2: In Situ Stabilization of Mixed Waste Contaminated Soi14

348

(6)

13.4.2.1 Background and Purpose

348

(1)

13.4.2.2 Treatability Studies

349

(2)

13.4.2.3 Delivery System

351

(1)

13.4.2.4 Operations

351

(1)

13.4.2.5 QC and Results

352

(2)

13.4.3 Case Study #3: Solidification of Liquid Waste Contaminated with Antimony

354

(4)

13.4.3.1 Background and Purpose

354

(1)

13.4.3.2 Treatability Studies

355

(1)

13.4.3.3 Delivery System

356

(1)

13.4.3.4 Operations

357

(1)

13.4.3.5 QC and Results

358

(1)

13.4.4 Case Study #4: Radioactive Waste Stabilization at the U.S. Department of Energy Savannah River Site

358

(5)

13.4.4.1 Background and Purpose

358

(1)

13.4.4.2 Saltstone Facility

359

(2)

13.4.4.3 High-Level Waste (HLW) Tank Fill

361

(2)

References

363

(2)

Index

365

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Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed Wastes

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