Toxic Warfare

A qualitative analysis of the threat posed to the United States by the use of toxic weapons.

Preface

iii

Tables

vii

Summary

ix

Acknowledgments

xv

Acronyms

xvii

Introduction

1

(6)

Recent Examples of Toxic Warfare

2

(1)

The Ubiquity of Raw Materials for Toxic Weapons

3

(1)

The Impact of Toxic Weapons

4

(1)

About This Report

4

(3)

What Are Toxic Weapons?

7

(10)

The Components of Toxic Warfare

7

(4)

Sources of Toxic Substances

11

(3)

The Impact of Toxic Warfare

14

(3)

Recent Use of and Thinking About Toxic Weapons

17

(12)

Poisoning with Chemicals, Sewage, and Pesticides

18

(3)

The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

19

(2)

Chemicals, Gases, and Smoke

21

(5)

Bosnia

21

(1)

Croatia

21

(1)

Sri Lanka

22

(1)

Chechnya and Russia

23

(3)

Trends in Toxic Warfare: Escalation of Use, Increased Sophistication, Exotic Combinations

26

(2)

Al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden

26

(1)

The ELN and FARC

27

(1)

LTTE Sea and Land Attacks

27

(1)

Raising the Level of Violence?

28

(1)

Toxic Threats in Expeditionary Settings

29

(10)

U.S. Operations and Toxic Warfare in the 1990s

30

(2)

U.S. Thinking About Toxic Threats

32

(2)

Remaining Issues for Expeditionary Operations

34

(5)

Toxic Threats in the United States

39

(6)

Areas of Vulnerability

39

(2)

Steps for Protecting the United States from and Responding to Toxic Warfare

41

(1)

Issues to Be Addressed

42

(1)

Final Thoughts

43

(2)

Bibliography

45

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Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials