Tribology In Chemical-Mechanical Planarization

Illustrating their intersecting role in manufacturing and technological development, this book examines tribological principles and their applications in CMP, including integrated circuits, basic concepts in surfaces of contacts, and common defects as well as friction, lubrication fundamentals, and the basics of wear. The book concludes its focus with mechanical aspects of CMP, pad materials, elastic modulus, and cell buckling. As the first source to integrate CMP and tribology, Tribology in Chemical-Mechanical Planarization provides applied scientists and engineers in the fields of semiconductors and microelectronics with clear foresight to the future of this technology.

Chapter 1 Introduction

1

(38)

1.1 A brief history of tribology

2

(2)

1.2 CMP technology development

4

(19)

1.2.1 Early history

4

(1)

1.2.2 CMP adoption

5

(1)

1.2.3 Evolution of IC and device technology

5

(5)

1.2.4 Circuit speed issues

10

(3)

1.2.5 Semiconductor road maps

13

(10)

1.2.5.1 An international road map for semiconductors

14

(5)

1.2.5.2 Moore's law

19

(4)

1.3 The basic CMP process

23

(14)

1.3.1 Scales

29

(8)

References

37

(2)

Chapter 2 Surface properties

39

(18)

2.1 Surface conformity

41

(3)

2.1.1 Real area of contact

42

(2)

2.2 Surface properties

44

(4)

2.2.1 Surface films

45

(2)

2.2.2 Near-surface structure

47

(1)

2.2.3 Subsurface structure

47

(1)

2.2.4 Bulk material properties

47

(1)

2.3 Surface characterization techniques

48

(1)

2.3.1 The profilometer

48

(1)

2.3.2 Optical techniques

48

(1)

2.3.3 Electron microscopy

49

(1)

2.4 Common CMP surface defects

49

(5)

Appendix: ASME standards for surface roughness measurement

54

(2)

References

56

(1)

Chapter 3 Friction

57

(12)

3.1 Basics of friction

57

(1)

3.2 Laws of friction

58

(2)

3.3 Friction due to adhesion

60

(1)

3.4 Friction due to ploughing

60

(1)

3.5 Friction due to deformation

60

(2)

3.6 Flash temperatures

62

(1)

3.7 Friction in CMP and post-CMP cleaning

63

(3)

References

66

(3)

Chapter 4 Lubrication

69

(24)

4.1 Lubrication regimes

69

(4)

4.2 Lubrication fundamentals

73

(6)

4.2.1 Hertzian contact

73

(1)

4.2.2 Lubricated Hertzian contact

74

(1)

4.2.3 Reynolds equation

75

(1)

4.2.4 Non-Newtonian EHD and micro-EHD lubrication

76

(1)

4.2.5 Mixed EHD film lubrication

77

(1)

4.2.6 Petroff's law

78

(1)

4.3 Boundary lubrication in CMP

79

(8)

4.3.1 Passivation of metals

79

(4)

4.3.1.1 Tungsten (W) CMP

79

(1)

4.3.1.2 Copper (Cu) CMP

80

(3)

4.3.2 Adhesion of oxides

83

(3)

4.3.3 Tribochemical reactions

86

(1)

4.4 Lubrication behavior in post-CMP cleaning

87

(1)

4.5 Additive classification for slurry design

87

(2)

References

89

(4)

Chapter 5 Wear in CMP

93

(8)

5.1 Basics of wear

93

(4)

5.1.1 Adhesive wear

93

(2)

5.1.2 Abrasive wear

95

(1)

5.1.3 Tribochemical wear

96

(1)

5.1.4 Fatigue wear

96

(1)

5.1.5 Scuffing

96

(1)

5.2 Slurry particles

97

(1)

5.3 Pad wear during polishing

98

(1)

References

99

(2)

Chapter 6 Force transmission

101

(34)

6.1 CMP force transmission considerations

101

(19)

6.1.1 Mechanical properties of polymeric materials

101

(1)

6.1.2 General elastic behavior

102

(3)

6.1.3 Viscoelastic behavior

105

(5)

6.1.4 Creep and stress relaxation characteristics for viscoelastic materials

110

(10)

6.2 Elastomeric foams

120

(13)

6.2.1 Basic cells

122

(1)

6.2.2 Young's modulus

123

(1)

6.2.3 Cell wall buckling

123

(10)

References

133

(2)

Chapter 7 CMP pads

135

(34)

7.1 Pad surface characteristics

135

(5)

7.2 Slurry depletion

140

(4)

7.3 Pad conditioning

144

(22)

7.3.1 The conditioning process

145

(2)

7.3.2 Rate stability

147

(10)

7.3.3 Conditioner disk - diamonds

157

(9)

References

166

(3)

Chapter 8 Post-CMP cleaning

169

(8)

References

175

(2)

Index

177

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Tribology In Chemical-Mechanical Planarization

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