Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

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ISBN: 9780534617677 | 0534617670
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 7/31/2003

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PART I: OVERVIEW. 1. Statistics and Scientific Method. PART II: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS. 2. Basic Mathematical and Measurement Concepts. 3. Frequency Distributions. 4. Measures of Central Tendency and Variability. 5. The Normal Curve and Standard Scores. 6. Correlation. 7. Linear Regression. PART III: INFERENTIAL STATISITCS. 8. Random Sampling and Probability. 9. Binomial Distribution. 10. Introduction to Hypothesis Testing Using the Sign Test. 11. Power. 12. Sampling Distributions, Sampling Distribution of the Mean, the Normal Deviate (z) Test. 13. Student's t-Test for Single Samples. 14. Student's t-Test for Correlated and Independent Groups. 15. Introduction to Analysis of Variance. 16. Multiple Comparisons. 17. Introduction to Two-Way Analysis of Variance. 18. Chi-Square and Other Nonparametric Tests. 19. Review of Inferential Statistics. Appendix A: Review of Prerequisite Mathematics. Appendix B: Equations. Appendix C: Answers to Questions and Problems. Appendix D: Tables.

part one OVERVIEW

(21)

Statistics and Scientific Method

(18)

Introduction

(1)

Methods of Knowing

(2)

Definitions

(3)

An Overall Example: Mode of Presentation and Retention

(2)

Scientific Research and Statistics

(1)

Random Sampling

(1)

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

(1)

Using Computers in Statistics

(1)

Statistics and the ``Real World''

(1)

What is the Truth? Data, Data, Where Are the Data?

(1)

What is the Truth? Authorities Are Nice, But . . .

(1)

What is the Truth? Data, Data, What Are the Data?

(1)

What is the Truth? Data, Data, What Are the Data?

(2)

Summary

(1)

Important Terms

(1)

Questions and Problems

(3)

Web Connection

(1)

part two DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

(138)

Basic Mathematical and Measurement Concepts

(15)

Study Hints for the Student

(1)

Mathematical Notation

(1)

Summation

(2)

Measurement Scales: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Scales

(4)

Nominal Scales

(1)

Ordinal Scales

(1)

Interval Scales

(1)

Ratio Scales

(2)

Measurement Scales in the Behavioral Sciences

(1)

Continuous and Discrete Variables

(4)

Real Limits of a Continuous Variable

(1)

Significant Figures

(1)

Rounding

(1)

Summary

(1)

Important Terms

(1)

Questions and Problems

(1)

Notes

(1)

Web Connection

(1)

Frequency Distributions

(28)

Introduction: Ungrouped Frequency Distributions

(2)

Grouping Scores

(6)

Constructing a Frequency Distribution of Grouped Scores

(4)

Relative Frequency, Cumulative Frequency, and Cumulative Percentage Distributions

(1)

Percentiles

(4)

Computation of Percentile Points

(3)

Percentile Rank

(3)

Computation of Percentile Rank

(3)

Graphing Frequency Distributions

(5)

The Bar Graph

(2)

The Histogram

(1)

The Frequency Polygon

(1)

The Cumulative Percentage Curve

(1)

Shapes of Frequency Curves

(1)

Exploratory Data Analysis

(2)

Stem and Leaf Diagrams

(2)

What is the Truth? Stretch the Scale, Change the Tale

(2)

Summary

(1)

Important Terms

(1)

Questions and Problems

(3)

Web Connection

(1)

Measures of Central Tendency and Variability

(20)

Introduction

(1)

Measures of Central Tendency: Arithmetic Mean, Median, and Mode

(9)

The Arithmetic Mean

(3)

The Overall Mean

(2)

The Median

(2)

The Mode

(1)

Measures of Central Tendency and Symmetry

(1)

Measures of Variability: Range, Standard Deviation, and Variance

(6)

The Range

(1)

The Standard Deviation

(6)

The Variance

(1)

Summary

(1)

Important Terms

(1)

Questions and Problems

(3)

Notes

(1)

Web Connection

(1)

The Normal Curve and Standard Scores

(17)

Introduction

(1)

The Normal Curve

(1)

Area Contained Under the Normal Curve

(1)

Standard Scores (z Scores)

(12)

Characteristics of z Scores

(1)

Finding Areas Corresponding to Any Raw Score

(5)

Finding the Raw Score Corresponding to a Given Area

(3)

Summary

100

(1)

Important Terms

100

(1)

Questions and Problems

100

(2)

Web Connection

102

(1)

Correlation

103

(31)

Introduction

103

(1)

Relationships

104

(7)

Linear Relationships

104

(3)

Positive and Negative Relationships

107

(1)

Perfect and Imperfect Relationships

108

(3)

Correlation

111

(15)

The Linear Correlation Coefficient Pearson

112

(8)

Other Correlation Coefficients

120

(4)

Effect of Range on Correlation

124

(1)

Effect of Extreme Score

125

(1)

Correlation Does Not Imply Causation

125

(1)

What is the Truth? ``Good Principal = Good Elementary School,'' or Does It?

126

(1)

Summary

127

(1)

Important Terms

128

(1)

Questions and Problems

128

(5)

Web Connection

133

(1)

Linear Regression

134

(25)

Introduction

134

(1)

Prediction and Imperfect Relationships

135

(2)

Constructing the Least-Squares Regression Line: Regression of Y on X

137

(6)

Regression of X on Y

143

(3)

Measuring Prediction Errors: The Standard Error of Estimate

146

(3)

Considerations in Using Linear Regression for Prediction

149

(1)

Relation Between Regression Constants and Pearson r

150

(1)

Multiple Regression and Multiple Correlation

151

(4)

Summary

155

(1)

Important Terms

156

(1)

Questions and Problems

156

(2)

Web Connection

158

(1)

part three INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

159

(330)

Random Sampling and Probability

161

(36)

Introduction

161

(1)

Random Sampling

162

(4)

Techniques for Random Sampling

164

(1)

Sampling With or Without Replacement

165

(1)

Probability

166

(23)

Some Basic Points Concerning Probability Values

167

(1)

Computing Probability

167

(1)

The Addition Rule

168

(5)

The Multiplication Rule

173

(10)

Multiplication and Addition Rules

183

(3)

Probability and Normally Distributed Continuous Variables

186

(3)

What is The Truth? ``Not Guilty, I'm a Victim of Coincidence'': Gutsy Plea or Truth?

189

(1)

What is The Truth? Sperm Count Decline--Male or Sampling Inadequacy?

190

(1)

What is The Truth? A Sample of a Sample

191

(2)

Summary

193

(1)

Important Terms

193

(1)

Questions and Problems

193

(3)

Notes

196

(1)

Web Connection

196

(1)

Binomial Distribution

197

(17)

Introduction

197

(1)

Definition and Illustration of the Binomial Distribution

197

(3)

Generating the Binomial Distribution from the Binomial Expansion

200

(2)

Using the Binomial Table

202

(9)

Summary

211

(1)

Important Terms

211

(1)

Questions and Problems

211

(2)

Notes

213

(1)

Web Connection

213

(1)

Introduction to Hypothesis Testing Using the Sign Test

214

(29)

Introduction

214

(1)

An Experiment: Marijuana and the Treatment of AIDS Patients

215

(5)

Repeated Measures Design

217

(1)

Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

218

(1)

Null Hypothesis (H0)

218

(1)

Decision Rule (α Level)

218

(1)

Evaluating the Marijuana Experiment Using the Binomial Distribution

219

(1)

Type I and Type II Errors

220

(1)

Alpha Level and the Decision Process

221

(2)

Evaluating the Tail of the Distribution

223

(2)

One- and Two-Tailed Probability Evaluations

225

(7)

Size of Effect: Significant Versus Important

232

(1)

What is The Truth? Chance or Real Effect--1?

232

(2)

What is The Truth? Chance or Real Effect--2?

234

(1)

What is The Truth? ``No Product Is Better Than Our Product''

235

(1)

What is The Truth? Anecdotal Reports Versus Systematic Research

236

(2)

Summary

238

(1)

Important Terms

239

(1)

Questions and Problems

239

(3)

Notes

242

(1)

Web Connection

242

(1)

Power

243

(20)

Introduction

243

(1)

What Is Power?

244

(1)

Pnull and Preal

244

(2)

Preal: A Measure of the Size and Direction of the Real Effect

245

(1)

Power Analysis of the AIDS Experiment

246

(7)

Effect of N and Size of Real Effect

247

(4)

Power and Beta (β)

251

(1)

Power and Alpha (α)

252

(1)

Alpha-Beta and Reality

253

(1)

Interpreting Nonsignificant Results

253

(1)

Calculation of Power

254

(5)

What is The Truth? Astrology and Science

259

(2)

Summary

261

(1)

Important Terms

261

(1)

Questions and Problems

261

(1)

Notes

262

(1)

Web Connection

262

(1)

Sampling Distributions, Sampling Distribution of the Mean, the Normal Deviate (z) Test

263

(30)

Introduction

263

(1)

Sampling Distributions

264

(4)

Generating Sampling Distributions

264

(4)

The Normal Deviate (z) Test

268

(22)

An Experiment: Evaluating the Reading Program at the Local Public Schools

268

(1)

Sampling Distribution of the Mean

268

(7)

The Reading Proficiency Experiment Revisited

275

(2)

Alternative Solution Using zobt and the Critical Region for Rejection of H0

277

(5)

Conditions Under Which the z Test Is Appropriate

282

(1)

Power and the z Test

282

(8)

Summary

290

(1)

Important Terms

290

(1)

Questions and Problems

290

(2)

Web Connection

292

(1)

Student's t Test for Single Samples

293

(24)

Introduction

293

(1)

Comparison of the z and t Tests

294

(1)

An Experiment: Technique for Increasing Early Speaking in Children

294

(1)

The Sampling Distribution of t

295

(2)

Degrees of Freedom

296

(1)

t and z Distributions Compared

297

(1)

First Word Utterances Experiment Revisited

298

(1)

Calculating tobt from Original Scores

299

(5)

Conditions Under Which the t Test Is Appropriate

304

(1)

t Distribution: Confidence Intervals for the Population Mean

304

(5)

Construction of the 95% Confidence Interval

305

(1)

Example: Estimating the Mean IQ of Professors at a University

306

(1)

General Equations for Any Confidence Interval

307

(2)

Testing the Significance of Pearson r

309

(3)

Summary

312

(1)

Important Terms

313

(1)

Questions and Problems

313

(2)

Notes

315

(1)

Web Connection

316

(1)

Student's t Test for Correlated and Independent Groups

317

(37)

Introduction

318

(1)

Student's t Test for Correlated Groups

319

(8)

An Experiment: Brain Stimulation and Eating

319

(1)

Comparison Between the t Test for Correlated Groups and the t Test for Single Samples

320

(1)

Brain Stimulation Experiment Revisited and Analyzed

321

(5)

tTest for Correlated Groups and Sign Test Compared

326

(1)

Assumptions Underlying the t Test for Correlated Groups

327

(1)

z and t Tests for Independent Groups

327

(1)

Independent Groups Design

327

(1)

z Test for Independent Groups

328

(3)

An Experiment: Hormone X and Sexual Behavior

328

(1)

The Sampling Distribution of the Difference Between Sample Means (X1 - X2)

329

(1)

An Experiment: Hormone X Experiment Revisited

330

(1)

Student's t Test for Independent Groups

331

(10)

Comparing the Equations for zobt and tobt

331

(2)

Analyzing the Hormone X Experiment with the t Test for Independent Groups

333

(1)

Calculating tobt When n1 = n2

334

(4)

Assumptions Underlying the t Test for Independent Groups

338

(1)

Violation of the Assumptions of the t Test for Independent Groups

339

(1)

Size of Effect

339

(2)

Power of the t Test

341

(1)

Correlated Groups and Independent Groups Designs Compared

342

(3)

Summary

345

(1)

Important Terms

346

(1)

Questions and Problems

347

(5)

Notes

352

(1)

Web Connection

353

(1)

Introduction to the Analysis of Variance

354

(27)

Introduction: The F Distribution

354

(2)

F Test and the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

356

(1)

Overview of the One-Way Analysis of Variance Technique

357

(5)

Within-Groups Variance Estimate, SW2

359

(1)

Between-Groups Variance Estimate, SB2

360

(2)

The F Ratio

362

(1)

Analyzing Data with the ANOVA Technique

362

(4)

An Experiment: Different Situations and Stress

362

(4)

Logic Underlying the One-Way ANOVA

366

(4)

The Relationship Between the Analysis of Variance and the t Test

370

(2)

Example: Dating---Sorority Versus Dormitory Women

370

(2)

Assumptions Underlying the Analysis of Variance

372

(1)

Size of Effect

373

(1)

Power of the Analysis of Variance

373

(2)

Power and N

374

(1)

Power and the Real Effect of the Independent Variable

374

(1)

Power and Sample Variability

374

(1)

What is The Truth? Much Ado About Almost Nothing

375

(1)

Summary

376

(1)

Important Terms

377

(1)

Questions and Problems

377

(3)

Web Connection

380

(1)

Multiple Comparisons

381

(14)

Introduction

381

(1)

A Priori, or Planned, Comparisons

382

(2)

A Posteriori, or Post Hoc, Comparisons

384

(7)

The Tukey Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) Test

385

(1)

The Newman-Keuls Test

386

(5)

HSD and Newman-Keuls Tests with Unequal n

391

(1)

Comparison Between Planned Comparisons, Tukey's HSD, and the Newman-Keuls Tests

391

(1)

Summary

392

(1)

Important Terms

392

(1)

Questions and Problems

393

(1)

Notes

393

(1)

Web Connection

394

(1)

Introduction to Two--Way Analysis of Variance

395

(30)

Introduction to the Two-Way Analysis of Variance-Qualitative Presentation

395

(4)

Quantitative Presentation of the Two-Way Analysis of Variance

399

(7)

Within-Cells Variance Estimate (SW2)

400

(2)

Row Variance Estimate (SR2)

402

(2)

Column Variance Estimate (SC2)

404

(1)

Row X Column Variance Estimate (SRC2)

405

(1)

Computing F Ratios

406

(1)

Analyzing an Experiment with Two-Way ANOVA

406

(14)

An Experiment: Effect of Exercise on Sleep

406

(4)

Interpreting the Results

410

(10)

Multiple Comparisons

420

(1)

Assumptions Underlying the Two-Way ANOVA

421

(1)

Summary

421

(1)

Important Terms

422

(1)

Questions and Problems

422

(2)

Web Connection

424

(1)

Chi-Square and Other Nonparametric Tests

425

(40)

Introduction: Distinction Between Parametric and Nonparametric Tests

426

(1)

Chi-Square (X2)

427

(14)

Single Variable Experiments

427

(1)

An Experiment: Preference for Different Brands of Light Beer

427

(4)

Test of Independence Between Two Variables

431

(1)

An Experiment: Political Affiliation and Attitude

432

(8)

Assumptions Underlying X2

440

(1)

The Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Ranks Test

441

(3)

An Experiment: Promoting More Favorable Attitudes Toward Wildlife Conservation

441

(3)

Assumptions of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test

444

(1)

The Mann-Whitney U Test

444

(6)

An Experiment: The Effect of a High-Protein Diet on Intellectual Development

444

(4)

Tied Ranks

448

(2)

Assumptions Underlying the Mann-Whitney U Test

450

(1)

The Kruskal--Wallis Test

450

(5)

An Experiment: Evaluating Two Weight Reduction Programs

450

(4)

Assumptions Underlying the Kruskal-Wallis Test

454

(1)

What is the Truth? Statistics and Applied Social Research-Useful or ``Abuseful''?

455

(2)

Summary

457

(1)

Important Terms

458

(1)

Questions and Problems

458

(6)

Notes

464

(1)

Web Connection

464

(1)

Review of Inferential Statistics

465

(24)

Introduction

465

(1)

Terms and Concepts

466

(1)

Process of Hypothesis Testing

467

(1)

Single Sample Designs

468

(2)

z Test for Single Samples

468

(1)

t Test for Single Samples

469

(1)

t Test for Testing the Significance of Pearson r

469

(1)

Two-Condition Experiments: Correlated Groups Design

470

(2)

t Test for Correlated Groups

470

(1)

Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Ranks Test

471

(1)

Sign Test

471

(1)

Independent Groups Design: Two Groups

472

(2)

t Test for Independent Groups

472

(1)

Mann-Whitney U Test

473

(1)

Multigroup Experiments

474

(3)

One-Way Analysis of Variance, F Test

474

(3)

One-Way Analysis of Variance, Kruskal-Wallis Test

477

(1)

Two-Way Analysis of Variance, F Test

477

(2)

Two-Way Analysis of Variance, F Test

478

(1)

Analyzing Nominal Data

479

(1)

Chi-Square Test

479

(1)

Choosing the Appropriate Test

480

(2)

Questions and Problems

482

(6)

Web Connection

488

(1)

Appendixes

489

(60)

A. Review of Prerequisite Mathematics

491

(10)

B. Equations

501

(8)

C. Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems

509

(15)

D. Tables

524

(25)

Glossary

549

(3)

Index

552

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Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences (with CD-ROM and InfoTrac)

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Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials