A User's Guide to Vacuum Technology

Choose and understand the vacuum technology that fits your project’s needs with this indispensable guide

Vacuum technology is used to provide process environments for other kinds of engineering technology, making it an unsung cornerstone of hundreds of projects incorporating analysis, research and development, manufacturing, and more. Since it is very often a secondary technology, users primarily interested in processes incorporating it will frequently only encounter vacuum technology when purchasing or troubleshooting. There is an urgent need for a guide to vacuum technology made with these users in mind.

For decades, A User’s Guide to Vacuum Technology has met this need, with a user-focused introduction to vacuum technology as it is incorporated into semiconductor, optics, solar sell, and other engineering processes. With an emphasis on otherwise neglected subjects and on accessibility to the secondary user of vacuum technology, it balances treatment of older systems that are still in use with a survey of the latest cutting-edge technologies. The result promises to continue as the essential guide to vacuum systems.

Readers of the fourth edition of A User’s Guide to Vacuum Technology will also find:

• Expanded treatment of gauges, pumps, materials, systems, and best operating practices
• Detailed discussion of cutting-edge topics like ultraclean vacuum and contamination control
• An authorial team with decades of combined research and engineering experience

A User’s Guide to Vacuum Technology is essential for those entering emerging STEM programs, engineering professionals and graduate students working with a huge range of engineering technologies.

John F. O’Hanlon, PhD, Emeritus Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Arizona, Tucson, USA and retired IBM Research Staff Member. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, a Fellow of the AVS and has published widely on vacuum technology and related subjects.

Timothy A. Gessert, PhD, is Principal Scientist and Managing Member of Gessert Consulting, LLC, USA, former Principal Scientist at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA, and Fellow and Past President of the AVS. He has published extensively on vacuum technology and related subjects.

ITS BASIS

1. Vacuum Technology

1.1 Units of Measurement

References 

2. Gas Properties

2.1 Kinetic Picture of a Gas

2.1.1 Velocity Distribution

2.1.2 Energy Distribution

2.1.3 Mean Free Path

2.1.4 Particle Flux

2.1.5 Monolayer Formation Time

2.1.6 Pressure

2.2 Gas Laws

2.2.1 Boyle's Law

2.2.2 Amonton's Law

2.2.3 Charles' Law

2.2.4 Dalton's Law

2.2.5 Avogadro's Law

2.2.6 Graham's Law

2.3 Elementary Gas Transport Phenomena

2.3.1 Viscosity

2.3.2 Thermal Conductivity

2.3.3 Diffusion

2.3.4 Thermal Transpiration

References

3. Gas Flow

3.1 Flow Regimes

3.2 Flow Concepts

3.3 Continuum Flow

3.3.1 Orifice

3.3.2 Long Round Tube

3.3.3 Short Round Tube

3.4 Molecular Flow

3.4.1 Orifice

3.4.2 Long Round Tube

3.4.3 Short Round Tube

3.4.4 Irregular Structures

3.4.4.1 Analytical Solutions

3.4.4.2 Statistical Solutions

3.4.5 Components in Parallel and Series

3.5 Models Spanning Molecular and Viscous Flow

References

4. Gas Release from Solids

4.1 Vaporization

4.2 Diffusion

4.2.1 Reduction of Outdiffusion by Vacuum Baking

4.3 Thermal Desorption

4.3.1 Zero Order 

4.3.2 First Order 

4.3.3 Second Order 

4.3.4 Desorption from Real Surfaces

4.3.5 Outgassing Measurements

4.3.6 Outgassing Models

4.3.7 Reduction Baking

4.4 Stimulated Desorption

4.4.1 Electron-Stimulated Desorption

4.4.2 Ion-Stimulated Desorption

4.4.3 Stimulated Chemical Reactions

4.4.4 Photo desorption

4.5 Permeation

4.5.1 Atomic and Molecular Permeation

4.5.2 Dissociative Permeation

4.5.3 Permeation and Outgassing Units

4.6 Pressure Limitations During Pumping

References

MEASUREMENT

5. Pressure Gauges

5.1 Direct-Reading Gauges

5.1.1 Diaphragm and Bourdon Gauges

5.1.2 Capacitance Manometer

5.2 Indirect-Reading Gauges

5.2.1 Thermal Conductivity Gauges

5.2.1.1 Pirani Gauge

5.2.1.2 Thermocouple Gauge

5.2.1.3 Stability and Calibration

5.2.2 Spinning Rotor Gauge

5.2.3 Ionization Gauges

5.2.3.1 Hot Cathode Gauges

5.2.3.2 Hot Cathode Gauge Errors

5.2.3.3 Cold Cathode Gauge

5.2.3.4 Gauge Calibration

References

6. Flow Meters

6.1 Molar Flow, Mass Flow, and Throughput

6.2 Rotameters and Chokes

6.3 Differential Pressure Devices

6.4 Thermal Mass Flow Technique

6.4.1 Mass Flow Meter

6.4.2 Mass Flow Controller

6.4.3 Mass Flow Meter Calibration

References

7. Pumping Speed

7.1 Definition

7.2 Mechanical Pump Speed Measurements

7.3 High Vacuum Pump Speed Measurements

7.3.1 Methods

7.3.2 Gas and Pump Dependence

7.3.3 Approximate Speed Measurements

7.3.4 Errors

References

8. Residual Gas Analyzers

8.1 Instrument Description

8.1.1 Ion Sources

8.1.1.1 Open Ion Sources

8.1.1.2 Closed Ion Sources

8.1.2 Mass Filters

8.1.2.1 Magnetic Sector

8.1.2.2 RF Quadrupole

8.1.2.3 Resolving Power

8.1.3 Detectors 

8.1.3.1 Discrete Dynode Electron Multiplier

8.1.3.2 Continuous Dynode Electron Multiplier

8.2 Installation and Operation

8.2.1 Operation at High Vacuum

8.2.1.1.Sensor Mounting

8.2.1.2 Stability

8.2.2 Operation at Medium and Low Vacuum

8.2.2.1 Differentially Pumped Analyzers

8.2.2.2 Miniature Quadrupoles

8.3 Calibration

8.4 Choosing an Instrument

References

9. Interpretation of RGA Data

9.1 Cracking Patterns

9.1.1 Dissociative Ionization

9.1.2 Isotopes

9.1.3 Multiple Ionization

9.1.4 Combined Effects

9.1.5 Ion-Molecule Reactions

9.2 Qualitative Analysis

9.3 Quantitative Analysis

9.3.1 Isolated Spectra

9.3.2 Overlapping Spectra

References

PRODUCTION 

10. Mechanical Pumps

10.1 Rotary Vane 

10.2 Lobe 

10.3 Claw 

10.4 Multi-stage Lobe 

10.5 Scroll 

10.6 Screw 

10.7 Diaphragm 

10.8 Reciprocating Piston

10.9 Mechanical Pump Operation

References 

11. Turbomolecular Pumps

11.1 Pumping Mechanism

11.2 Speed–compression Relations

11.2.1 Maximum Compression

11.2.2 Maximum Speed

11.2.3 General Relation

11.3 Ultimate Pressure

11.4 Turbo Pump Designs

11.5 Turbo Drag Pumps

References

12. Diffusion Pumps

12.1 Pumping Mechanism

12.2 Speed-Throughput Characteristics

12.3 Boiler Heating Effects

12.4 Backstreaming, Baffles, and Traps

References

13. Getter and Ion Pumps

13.1 Getter Pumps

13.1.1 Titanium Sublimation  

13.1.2 Nonevaporable Getters

13.2 Ion Pumps

References

14.Cryogenic Pumps

14.1 Pumping Mechanisms

14.2 Speed, Pressure, and Saturation

14.3 Cooling Methods

14.4 Cryo Pump Characteristics

14.4.1 Sorption Pumps

14.4.2 Gas Refrigerator Pumps

14.4.3 Liquid Cryogen Pumps

References

MATERIALS

15. Materials in Vacuum

15.1 Metals

15.1.1 Vaporization

15.1.2 Permeability

15.1.3 Outgassing

15.1.3.1 Dissolved Gas

15.1.3.2 Surface and Near-Surface Gas

15.1.4 Structural Metals

15.2 Glasses and Ceramics

15.3 Polymers

References

16. Joints, Seals, and Valves

16.1 Permanent Joints

16.1.1 Welding

16.1.2 Soldering and Brazing

16.1.3 Joining Glasses and Ceramics

16.2 Demountable Joints

16.2.1 Elastomer Seals

16.2.2 Metal Gaskets

16.3 Valves and Motion Feedthroughs

16.3.1 Small Valves

16.3.2 Large Valves

16.3.3 Special Purpose Valves

16.3.4 Motion Feedthroughs

References

17.Pump Fluids and Lubricants

17.1 Pump Fluids

17.1.1 Fluid Properties

17.1.1.1 Vapor Pressure

17.1.1.2 Other Characteristics

17.1.2 Fluid Types

17.1.2.1 Mineral Oils

17.1.2.2 Esters

17.1.2.3 Silicones

17.1.2.4 Ethers

17.1.2.5 Fluorochemicals

17.1.3 Selecting Fluids

17.1.3.1 Rotary Vane Lobe Pump Fluids

17.1.3.2 Turbo Pump Fluids

17.1.3.3 Diffusion Pump Fluids

17.1.4 Reclamation

17.2 Lubricants

17.2.1 Lubricant Properties

17.2.1.1 Absolute Viscosity

17.2.1.2 Kinematic Viscosity

17.2.1.3 Viscosity Index

17.2.2 Selecting Lubricants

17.2.2.1 Liquid 

17.2.2.2 Grease 

17.2.2.3 Solid Film

References

SYSTEMS

18. Rough Vacuum Pumping

18.1 Exhaust Rate

18.1.1 Pump Size

18.1.2 Aerosol Formation

18.2 Crossover

18.2.1 Minimum Crossover Pressure

18.2.2 Maximum Crossover Pressure

18.2.2.1 Diffusion

18.2.2.2 Turbo

18.2.2.3 Cryo 

18.2.2.4 Sputter-Ion

References

19. High Vacuum Systems

19.1 Diffusion-Pumped Systems

19.1.1 Operating Modes

19.1.2 Operating Issues

19.2 Turbo-Pumped Systems

19.2.1 Operating Modes

19.2.2 Operating Issues

19.3 Sputter-Ion-Pumped Systems

19.3.1 Operating Modes

19.3.2 Operating Issues

19.4 Cryo-Pumped Systems

19.4.1 Operating Modes

19.4.2 Regeneration

19.4.3 Operating Issues

19.5 High Vacuum Chambers

19.5.1 Managing Water Vapor

References

20. Ultraclean Vacuum Systems

20.1 Ultraclean Pumps

20.1.1 Dry Roughing Pumps

20.1.2 Turbo Pumps

20.1.3 Cryo Pumps

20.1.4 Sputter-Ion, TSP, and NEG Pumps

20.2 Ultraclean Chamber Materials and Components

20.3 Ultraclean Pumping and Pressure Measurement

References

21. Controlling Contamination in Vacuum Systems

21.1 Defining Contamination in a Vacuum Environment 

21.1.1 Establishing Control of Vacuum Contamination

21.1.2 Types of Vacuum Contamination

21.1.2.1 Particle Contamination

21.1.2.1.1 Volume Particle Contamination 

21.1.2.1.2 Surface Particle Contamination: IEST Standard CC1246

21.1.2.1.3 Particle Adhesion

21.1.2.2 Gas Contamination

21.1.2.3 Film Contamination

21.2 Pump Contamination

21.2.1 Low/Rough and Medium Vacuum Pump Contamination

21.2.1.1 Fluid-Sealed Mechanical Pumps

21.2.1.2 Dry Mechanical Pumps

21.2.2 High and UHV Vacuum Pump Contamination

21.2.2.1 Diffusion Pumps

21.2.2.2 Turbo- and Turbo-Drag Pumps

21.2.2.3 Cryo Pumps

21.2.2.4 Sputter-Ion and Titanium-Sublimination Pumps 

21.3 Evacuation Contamination

21.3.1 Particle Sources

21.3.1 Remediation Methods

21.4 Venting Contamination

21.5 Internal Components, Mechanisms, and Bearings

21.6 Machining Contamination

21.6.1 Cutting, Milling, and Turning

21.6.2 Grinding and Polishing

21.6.3 Welding

21.7 Process-Related Sources

21.7.1 Deposition Sources

21.7.2 Leak Detection

21.8 Lubrication Contamination

21.8.1 Liquid Lubricants

21.8.2 Solid Lubricants

21.8.3 Lamellar, Polymer, and Suspension Lubricants

21.9 Vacuum System and Component Cleaning

21.9.1 Designing a Cleaning Process

21.10 Review of Clean Room Environments for Vacuum Systems

21.10.1 The Cleanroom Environment

21.10.2 Using Vacuum Systems in a Cleanroom Environment

References

22. High Flow Systems

22.1 Mechanically Pumped Systems

22.2 Throttled High Vacuum Systems

22.2.1 Chamber Design

22.2.2 Turbo Pumped

22.2.3 Cryo Pumped

References

23. Multichambered Systems

23.1 Flexible Substrates

23.2 Rigid Substrates

23.2.1 Inline Systems

23.2.2 Cluster Systems

23.3 Analytical Instruments

References

24. Leak Detection

24.1 Mass Spectrometer Leak Detectors

24.1.1 Forward-Flow 

24.1.2 Counter-Flow 

24.2 Performance

24.2.1 Sensitivity

24.2.2 Response Time

24.2.3 Testing Pressurized Chambers

24.2.4 Calibration

24.3 Leak-Hunting Techniques

24.4 Leak Detecting with Hydrogen Tracer Gas

References

Symbols

APPENDIXES

A. Units and Constants

A.1 Physical Constants

A.2 SI Base Units

A.3 Conversion Factors

B. Gas Properties

B.1 Mean Free Paths of Gases as a Function of Pressure

B.2 Physical Properties of Gases and Vapors at T = 0°C

B.3 Cryogenic Properties of Gases

B.4 Gas Conductance and Flow Formulas

B.5 Vapor Pressure Curves of Common Gases

B.6 Appearances of Discharges in Gases and Vapors at Low Pressures

B.7 DC Breakdown Voltages for Air and Helium Between Flat Parallel Plates

B.8 Particle Settling Velocities in Air

C. Material Properties

C.1 Outgassing Rates of Vacuum Baked Metals

C.2 Outgassing Rates of Unbaked Metals

C.3 Outgassing Rates of Ceramics and Glasses

C.4 Outgassing Rates of Elastomers

C.5 Permeability of Polymeric Materials

C.6 Vapor Pressure Curves of the Solid and Liquid Elements

C.7 Outgassing Rates of Polymers

C.8 Austenitic Stainless Steels

D. Isotopes

D.1 Natural Abundances

E. Cracking Patterns

E.1 Cracking Patterns of Pump Fluids

E.2 Cracking Patterns of Common Gases

E.3 Cracking Patterns of Common Vapors

E.4 Cracking Patterns of Common Solvents

E.5 Cracking Patterns of Semiconductor Dopants

F. Pump Fluid Properties

F.1 Compatibility of Elastomers and Pump Fluids

F.2 Vapor Pressures of Mechanical Pump Fluids

F.3 Vapor Pressures of Diffusion Pump Fluids

F.4 Kinematic Viscosities of Pump Fluids

F.5 Relation between Oil Temperature, Viscosity and Viscosity Index 

F.6 Kinematic Viscosity Conversion Factors

Index

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